Detailed Guide to the Cultivation Management and Care Techniques of the 'Shuaiqi' Chrysanthemum

Growing Techniques Jan 1, 1970 0 views

The chrysanthemum is one of China's famous flowers, with many varieties, graceful blooms, and high ornamental value, and the 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemum is one of the many chrysanthemums, a precious and rare variety in extremely short supply, much loved by people in daily life. Below is a detailed cultivation and management method for the 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemum. Those who love chrysanthemums can refer to it.

Environment

The 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemum likes full sunlight but is also slightly shade-tolerant. It is fairly drought-tolerant and fears waterlogged soil. It can be planted in loose, fertile, well-drained sandy loam. It can grow in soils from slightly acidic to neutral, and continuous cropping should be avoided when planting in the ground. For pot cultivation, a mix of leaf mold, garden soil, river sand or coal cinder, and rice-husk ash can be used.

Temperature

The 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemum is a short-day plant with strong adaptability. It likes cool conditions and is fairly cold-tolerant. The optimum growing temperature is 18-21 degrees, the maximum is 32 degrees, and the minimum is 10 degrees. The rhizome can tolerate low temperatures of -10 degrees. The minimum night temperature during the flowering period is 17°C, and during the flowering period (middle and late) it can drop to 15-13°C.

Fertilizing

The 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemum does not like heavy watering or heavy fertilizing. During the growing process, applying one dose of dilute nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium water-soluble fertilizer is enough. After the flower buds form, which is also after autumn begins, phosphorus-potassium fertilizer or organic dilute liquid fertilizer can be applied to promote larger flowers and more vivid color.

Watering

For potted 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemums, follow the principle of watering thoroughly only when the soil has dried out. They are drought-tolerant and dislike waterlogging. Water only when the tender shoot tips wilt. Keep them in full sun and ensure good air circulation. During the plum rain season, drain promptly and never allow water to accumulate. In winter the plant will wither, and the rhizome will sprout again the following spring. Grass can be spread over them to protect against the cold. Water requirements are low in winter, so just keep the potting soil slightly moist. In cold weather, give one watering of winter water and apply one dose of winter fertilizer.

Management

① For potted 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemums, after mid-September, when the plant shows a tendency to grow tall, paclobutrazol dwarfing agent can be sprayed on the 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemum to make it compact, once every half month to promote dwarfing!

② When caring for potted 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemums, side buds should be removed promptly, leaving two terminal buds; all other side buds should be removed early and completely to avoid consuming nutrients. When the terminal buds have grown to about 10 cm, cut off one more, so the flowers bloom large and beautiful.

③ During the flowering period of the 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemum, the midday sun can be shaded off, and it should not be exposed to rain. Keep the air circulating, and never place it in too shady a spot, otherwise the flower color will fade due to excessive shade and affect the ornamental effect. A little sunlight is best!

The 'Shuaiqi' chrysanthemum is different from ordinary chrysanthemums. Its flowers are large and beautiful, and it is difficult to grow, so when planting it, be sure to pay attention to the cultivation method. The key planting step is water and fertilizer management. The above are the detailed planting steps, which those who want to grow chrysanthemums can refer to.

Cultivation, Growing and Uses of the Chrysanthemum

Chrysanthemum (Latin scientific name: Dendranthema morifolium (Ramat.) Tzvel.): In plant taxonomy it is a perennial herbaceous plant of the Asteraceae family and the genus Chrysanthemum. By cultivation form, it is divided into cultivation types such as spray chrysanthemum, single-stem chrysanthemum, large standard chrysanthemum, cliff chrysanthemum, artistic chrysanthemum, and desk chrysanthemum; by the external form of the petals, it is divided into cultivation types such as incurved, reflexed, recurved, irregular, exposed-heart, and flying-spider. Within the different types, chrysanthemums are also named with all kinds of variety names.

  Cultivation. There are two methods: vegetative propagation and seed propagation. Chrysanthemum seeds germinate slowly above 10℃, with an optimum temperature of 25℃. Sow thinly between February and April; under normal circumstances most can flower the same year.
   Vegetative propagation includes cuttings, division, grafting, layering, and tissue culture. Usually cutting propagation is the main method, which is further divided into bud cuttings, softwood cuttings, and leaf-bud cuttings.
   Bud cuttings: In autumn and winter, cut off the outer basal shoots of the plant for cuttings. The standard for selecting buds is that they are relatively far from the plant and the bud head is plump. After selecting the buds, strip off the lower leaves and insert them at a plant spacing of 3-4 cm and a row spacing of 4-5 cm into flower pots or coarse sand in a cutting bed inside a greenhouse or plastic tunnel, maintaining a room temperature of 7-8℃, and plant them outdoors after the weather warms in spring.
   Softwood cuttings: This method is the most widely used. It is mostly done in April-May. Cut softwood shoots 8-10 cm long as cuttings, and manage them well after insertion. At a temperature of 18-21℃, most varieties root in about 3 weeks and can be transplanted into pots in about 4 weeks. For outdoor cutting beds, the medium can be garden soil plus 1/3 rice-husk ash. Build a reed-mat shed on the raised bed for shade. For fully exposed cutting beds, if automatic misting equipment is available, no shading is needed.
   Leaf-bud cuttings: Cut a single leaf with an axillary bud from a branch and insert it. This method is only used for propagating rare varieties.
   Division: Generally around Qingming, dig up the plant, separate it with its roots according to the natural form of the roots, and plant them separately in pots.
   Grafting: To make chrysanthemums grow vigorously and to create 'Shiyangjin' or large standard chrysanthemums, Artemisia annua or Artemisia apiacea can be used as rootstock for grafting. Collect Artemisia seeds in late autumn, sow them in a greenhouse in winter, or raise seedlings in a hotbed in March; when the seedlings are 3-4 cm tall in late April, move them into pots or the field, and carry out cleft grafting on sunny days in May-June.
   Layering: This method is used only when propagating bud-sport parts.
   Tissue culture: Using tissue culture technology to propagate chrysanthemums has the advantages of requiring little material, producing a large number of plantlets, being virus-free and disease-free, and being able to maintain the excellent characteristics of the variety. The medium is MS + 6BA = (6-benzyladenine) 1 mg/L + NAA (naphthaleneacetic acid) 0.2 mg/L, pH 5.8. Use chrysanthemum shoot tips (0.3-0.5 mm), tender stems, or flower buds (9-10 mm in diameter), cut into 0.5 cm segments, and inoculate. Room temperature 26℃±1℃, with 8 hours of supplemental light per day (1000—1500 lux). After 1-2 months, callus tissue can be induced. After another 1-2 months, green shoots and buds differentiate. Then transfer the differentiated green buds onto White + NAA 1-2 mg/L medium, and after about 1 month robust roots can be induced. After another month of culture, they can be planted outdoors. Watering with half the concentration of the original culture solution is the key to the success of the test-tube plantlets.
  Cultivation
  I. Cultivation and Management of Potted Chrysanthemums
   In China, the most common form of cultivating chrysanthemums is in pots. There are many cultivation methods, which can be roughly summarized into the following three ways.
   (1) One-stage root system cultivation method: This method is mostly used in the Yangtze River and Pearl River basins and the southwestern regions. In these areas, the whole process of growing chrysanthemums takes about half a year each year, that is, cuttings in May, potting in June, stopping the terminal growth and setting the tip in early August, strengthening fertilizer and water to boost growth in September, and flowering in October-November. Due to different local conditions and techniques, the cultivation methods for potted chrysanthemums also differ, mainly the following five:
   1. Cutting followed by potting cultivation method: This method is the most widely used. Its advantages are less root damage, true flower color, and a long flowering period. But it is more labor-intensive, and the plant and flowers are not robust enough.
   2. Tile-cylinder ground planting then potting method: The cuttings are planted in a tile cylinder formed by three tiles for cultivation, and dug up and potted when the flower buds show color. This method saves more labor than the former, but the roots are easily damaged when digging up the seedlings, and the flowering period and flower quality are inferior to the former.
   3. Ground planting with pot sleeving method: The cuttings are planted in high beds, and in early July a large-hole pot is slipped over them, letting the seedlings grow out through the pot holes, adding soil in stages, and cutting the roots when the color shows. The disadvantages of this method are similar to the previous one.
   4. In-pot grafting method: Sow Artemisia seedlings in March, graft chrysanthemums onto the Artemisia seedlings in May, and thereafter manage them the same as the cutting-and-potting method. Plants propagated by this method have stronger root systems and are more robust, with larger flowers that open earlier, but it is more labor-intensive.
   5. Ground planting with grafting and pot sleeving method: In March, plant the raised Artemisia apiacea seedlings in the beds, and graft in May. Cut the roots when the flower buds show color. Its advantages are convenient management, robust plants, and larger flowers. The disadvantages are the same as the pot-sleeving method.
  (2) Two-stage root system cultivation method: This method is commonly used in Shenyang and other northeastern regions, and is also applied in Jiangxi, Hunan, and other places. Cuttings are taken in May-June, and after the seedlings survive they are potted, with soil added to 1/3-1/2 of the pot depth. In late July to early August, stop the terminal growth and set the tip. After the side branches grow beyond the pot rim, fix the branches with bamboo hooks so that the branches are evenly distributed, and adjust the plant height with the branch-coiling method; after covering with soil, the branches root again. When the branches reach a certain height, the branches can be coiled and adjusted once more, then filled with plenty of fertile soil. Using this method, the chrysanthemum has a neat and beautiful appearance, a short plant, full leaves, strong branches, large flowers, and a long flowering period. Because the coiled branches root again, it is called the two-stage root system cultivation method.
  (3) Three-stage root system cultivation method: This is an advanced cultivation method in North China. From winter cuttings to flowering in November of the following year, it takes 1 year. Beijing chrysanthemum masters have summarized the following 4 stages.
   1. Winter storage: When planting the mother plants in late autumn and early winter, carefully select robust basal shoots for cuttings to raise seedlings.
   2. Spring planting: In mid-April, divide the seedlings and pot them, using ordinary leaf mold soil without fertilizer.
   3. Summer setting: Use pinching and removal of side buds to promote the growth of basal shoots. By mid-July, when the new shoots emerging from the soil have grown to about 10 cm tall, select the seedlings that are well developed with plump bud heads for repotting and final planting.
   4. Autumn care: In early to mid-July, move the selected strong seedlings into pots 20-24 cm in diameter, using ordinary potting soil plus 0.5% superphosphate and an appropriate amount of insecticidal and fungicidal agents. Before potting, place a few pieces of firewood or straw over the drainage hole at the bottom of the pot, add 1 cm of coarse residue on top for drainage. Add a little soil over the coarse residue, then add base fertilizer around the edge. Then tip out the chrysanthemum seedling from the small pot together with its soil ball, plant it with the new shoot as the center, cut off excess tiller buds, add soil to the original seedling depth and firm it. After repotting, the new plant and the mother plant grow at the same time. Once the new plant has developed robustly, cut off the old plant level with the soil surface. After cutting off the mother plant, loosen the soil, fill in 30% ordinary potting soil, and add 20-30% decomposed compost. At this point the pot is 80% full of fertile soil. One week later the third-stage new roots emerge, and the new and old three-stage root systems and the chrysanthemum seedling grow rapidly, forming a robust plant with a strong root system.
   Throughout the entire cultivation process, repot once, fill soil twice, and the mother plant and new plant root three times. In the meantime, pay attention to removing side buds, preventing and controlling pests and diseases, irrigation and drainage, and topdressing, until flowering.
   Looking at the above three cultivation methods, each has its own strengths. But in terms of quality, the three-stage root system method is the best, the two-stage root system method is next, and the one-stage root system method is the poorest.
  II. Cultivation and Management of Shaped Chrysanthemums
   Shaping is the artistic processing of chrysanthemums to form a specific pattern. It is highly interesting, technical, and scientific, and is deeply welcomed by people.
   (1) Cliff chrysanthemum: Select small chrysanthemum varieties for cuttings and repotting. Insert a bamboo strip bent at one end into the base of the plant, and fix the other end to a frame, so that the plant grows along the bamboo strip at a 45-degree angle to the ground. Tie it once every 2-3 nodes. Let the main branch grow freely, and repeatedly pinch the side branches until late September, when pinching stops. After budding, remove buds several times, and move it into a large pot for care. A cliff chrysanthemum is generally about 1.5 m long, placed beside rocks, by water, or on rockeries; with drooping branches and many flowers, it is quite picturesque. To make a large cliff chrysanthemum, cuttings must be taken earlier, in July-August, and supplemental lighting must be given from August to March of the following year, increasing artificial light to more than 14 hours per day, to suppress bud formation that year. Because the cliff chrysanthemum plant grows large, it requires more water and fertilizer, which should be fully supplied.
  (2) Large standard chrysanthemum: Select large-flowered varieties with strong branching and soft branches, and cultivate them carefully for 1-2 years; each plant can bear dozens to thousands of flowers, suitable for exhibitions and halls. It can be cultivated by cuttings. Extra-large standard chrysanthemums are usually grafted onto Artemisia seedlings and cultivated with long-day treatment for 2 years before being completed. The key points of cutting cultivation are as follows: In September, dig up robust basal shoots 5-10 cm long and insert them in shallow pots; after rooting in 2-3 weeks, move them into pots 12 cm in diameter and overwinter indoors. In January of the following year, move them into large pots. When the seedling has 7-9 leaves, pinch it leaving 6-7 leaves. Keep only 3-4 side branches on the upper part, and remove the lower side branches. Thereafter pinch the side branches repeatedly, leaving 4-5 leaves each time. Plant out after the weather warms in spring. After that, pinch about once every 20 days, and stop in early August. Insert 1 thin bamboo stake in the middle of the plant to fix the main stem, then insert 4-5 bamboo poles around it and tie the side branches to them. In early September, move it into a large pot. After the Start of Autumn, strengthen water and fertilizer management, and regularly remove buds and strip flower buds. When the flower buds reach 1-1.5 cm in diameter, make a flat-topped or hemispherical bamboo ring from bamboo strips and place it over the chrysanthemum plant, tying it firmly to each support, then evenly tie the buds to the bamboo ring with thin lead wire, and continue care, in preparation for exhibition arrangement during the flowering period. A large standard chrysanthemum cultivated this way can bear hundreds of flowers per plant. Extra-large standard chrysanthemums can even bear more than 2000-3000 flowers.
  (3) Tower chrysanthemum ('Shiyangjin'): Graft chrysanthemums of various flower types and colors onto a single Artemisia annua 3-5 m tall; the main branch of the rootstock is not topped but allowed to grow, and grafting is done in layers on the side branches, forming a tower shape. Flowers of all colors bloom at the same time, colorful and very spectacular. When cultivating 'Shiyangjin' chrysanthemums, when selecting scion varieties, pay attention to the coordination of flower type, flower color, flower size, etc., and to similar flowering periods, so that the whole plant shows a harmonious and unified beauty. For the cultivation method, refer to the large standard chrysanthemum.
  (4) Bonsai chrysanthemum: Select suitable small chrysanthemum varieties, and from late October to early November, take strong buds from the mother plant for cutting propagation. After they survive, pot them in January, repot in March, and repot a second time in May. When repotting, select and keep robust plants with well-developed root systems, keep 4-6 thicker lateral roots per plant, then fix the lateral roots onto prepared rockery stones or dead tree stumps, prune them, and then bind them with copper wire. By summer, when the chrysanthemum seedlings have grown 5-7 buds, keep 3 buds at the required positions, pinch after they grow a little, and continuously remove side buds. When the branches grow to 20 cm, shape them according to the wooden stake or rockery stone; at this point the prototype of the bonsai is complete. Do the final pinching in early September. After budding in late October, lay green moss in the pot and remove the copper wire, forming a natural landscape. Chrysanthemum bonsai include styles such as towering ancient trees and cliffs over water. If managed properly, it can survive and be used for 4-8 years.    (5) Desk chrysanthemum: Short plant, large flowers, can be arranged in halls and on desks. It has the advantages of occupying little space, a short growing period, and a long ornamental period. The cultivation of desk chrysanthemums mainly involves three key points: selecting varieties, propagating seedlings at the right time, and hormone treatment.
  For cultivating desk chrysanthemums, it is advisable to choose short-statured varieties with large flowers, full flower form, and broad, spreading leaves, such as 'Lüyun', 'Lü Mudan', 'Shuaiqi', 'Dengxia Wuniang', etc. The time for cutting propagation should be in August-September. When the root system is robust, move them into pots 10 cm in diameter filled with sandy potting soil; one week later apply a complete fertilizer, and apply it regularly. Thereafter gradually increase the fertilizer concentration, and stop fertilizing when the flower buds show color. Each time you water with fertilizer solution, be sure not to apply too much. After the cuttings survive, immediately spray the top center with a 2% aqueous solution of the growth retardant B9 (N-2-methylaminosuccinamic acid); the second time, spray the whole plant one week after potting; thereafter once every 10 days until color shows, 4-5 times in total, to achieve dwarfing.
  III. Cultivation and Management of Cut Flowers
   Chrysanthemum cut flowers are the largest and best-selling in the world cut flower market, ranking first among the world's 'four major cut flowers', accounting for about 30% of the total.
   (1) Year-round supply of chrysanthemum cut flowers: Fresh cut flower production must achieve balanced year-round marketing. Conventional cultivation includes spring chrysanthemums, summer chrysanthemums, autumn chrysanthemums, and winter chrysanthemums (cold chrysanthemums), as well as June chrysanthemums, July-August chrysanthemums, and September chrysanthemums, with extremely many varieties and different growth and flowering characteristics. In the remaining months when chrysanthemums do not bloom, the supply problem is solved through artificial forcing and delaying of the flowering period.
  (2) Flowering characteristics of chrysanthemums: The flower bud differentiation and flowering of chrysanthemums are related to leaf number, plant height, sunlight, and temperature. Flower bud differentiation requires growth to about 10 expanded leaves and a plant height of more than 25 cm, and it still takes 45-60 days from then to flowering. Generally speaking, autumn chrysanthemums and winter chrysanthemums differentiate flower buds rapidly (10-15 days) under short-day conditions. Under long-day conditions, flower buds do not differentiate. However, summer chrysanthemum varieties that bloom in July-August can complete flower bud differentiation under long-day conditions. September-blooming chrysanthemums and autumn and winter chrysanthemums do not bloom under long-day conditions.
  (3) Artificial forcing and delaying of the flowering period: Under conventional cultivation conditions, in the Guangzhou area the latest-blooming summer chrysanthemum varieties are 'Liuyue Huang', 'Liuyue Bai', 'Guifei Hong', etc., which can bloom until mid-to-late June. But summer temperatures are high and sunlight is intense, so at flowering time these varieties should also be placed under a shade shed. The earliest-blooming autumn chrysanthemums are 'Zao Huang', 'Zao Bai', 'Bai Xiezhao', 'Huang Nijin', which generally bloom in late October or early November. Thus, in the flower nursery, chrysanthemums are absent for four months: July, August, September, and October.
  By using artificial supplemental lighting or shading, and regulating temperature, humidity, and ventilation, autumn chrysanthemums can be made to bloom earlier and summer chrysanthemums to bloom later, so that cut flower production can be marketed in balanced batches throughout the year. For artificial supplemental lighting, generally a 100-watt or 60-watt electric bulb is hung 1 m above the plants, with each lamp illuminating an area of 4 square meters.
  There are three methods of supplemental lighting and shading: first, intermittent or brief supplemental lighting, that is, adding light for 0.5-1 hour in the dark of night; second, giving several hours of darkness treatment during the day (that is, daytime shading); third, adding light in advance in the early morning and evening to increase the number of sunlight hours, or shading to prolong the night time. Cultivating under shade in black plastic sheds can both regulate temperature and sunlight and appropriately advance flowering.
  (4) Market specifications: According to the requirements of the Hong Kong, China and Macao, China markets, medium-flowered single-head flower stems are mostly required, with fresh and healthy leaf color, no damage or defects, and no pests or diseases. The flower stem is 70-80 cm long, the stem is straight, and the flower is half-open, about 5-6 cm in diameter. When kept in water in a vase, the flower can open to about 10 cm in diameter and remain fresh for 12-15 days.
  (5) Cut flower varieties: Varieties suitable for fresh cut flowers are mostly medium chrysanthemums and a few large chrysanthemums; the flying-spider type and hook-ring type are not used, but popular market varieties change from time to time. Currently, the varieties popular in the Hong Kong, China and Macao, China markets are mostly varieties introduced in recent years, such as 'Lijin' chrysanthemum ('Zhusha Hong'), 'Guifei Hong', 'Fenhong', 'Ni Jinhuang'. 'Liuyue Huang', 'Liuyue Bai', 'Luolan', 'Yanju', 'Sangya Zi'. 'Hong Anni', 'Bai Zhizhu', 'Bameila Nijin', 'Majiali Meigui', and twenty to thirty other varieties.
  (6) Cut flower cultivation: This is largely the same as general cultivation methods. The most important thing is to choose a fertile sandy loam nursery site with good drainage. A cut flower nursery field plants about 6000 plants per mu, that is, 8-9 plants per square meter. Keep 5 branches per plant, remove the top 20 days after planting, regularly remove side buds, and diligently remove (side) buds at the budding stage. In this way, about 30,000 cut flower stems can be harvested per mu.
  IV. Pest and Disease Control: Common diseases include brown spot disease, black spot disease, powdery mildew, and root rot. The pathogens of the above diseases are all fungi, all caused by excessive soil moisture and poor drainage, ventilation, and light transmission. Therefore, it is advisable to choose a place with good ecological conditions for cultivation, and attention must be paid to draining waterlogged areas, removing diseased plants and diseased leaves, and burning residual roots. Potting soil should be disinfected with 1:80 formalin solution, and during the growing period, Bordeaux mixture, 80% wettable zineb solution, or 50% wettable thiophanate solution can be sprayed for treatment. In addition, there are several viruses that cause damage; diseased plants must be pulled up and burned, and vectors such as aphids and green plant bugs must be thoroughly eliminated.    Pests include aphids, red spiders, inchworms, chrysanthemum longhorn beetles, white grubs, leaf-miner moth larvae, grasshoppers, and snails, which can be controlled respectively by strengthening cultivation management, manual capture, and spraying. Uses: The chrysanthemum is one of China's top ten famous flowers. It has many varieties, rich colors, varied flower shapes, and countless postures. Every late autumn, many places hold chrysanthemum exhibitions for people to enjoy. It can be arranged in garden flower beds, flower borders, or on rockeries, and can also be made into pot flowers, bonsai, flower baskets, wreaths, large standard chrysanthemums, cliff chrysanthemums, tower chrysanthemums, tree chrysanthemums, tied chrysanthemums, etc., and can be used as cut flowers for vases. In recent years, ground-cover chrysanthemums have begun to be developed, used as 'flowering ground cover', etc.
  In addition, chrysanthemums also have medicinal value. Medicinal chrysanthemums such as 'Chuju', 'Huangju', 'Haoju', and 'Chaju' all have certain therapeutic effects for treating some ailments. Some varieties can also be eaten as vegetables. For example, the chrysanthemum greens D. nankingense in the Nanjing area is a popular vegetable; its tender buds and young leaves are fragrant and refreshing and rich in nutrients.

Chrysanthemum Dendranthema morifolium (Ramat.) Tzvel. Chrysanthemum Illustrated Guide: How to Grow Chrysanthemums / How to Propagate Chrysanthemums

Chrysanthemum Profile
Chrysanthemum Dendranthema morifolium (Ramat.) Tzvel.
Chrysanthemum Cultivation Methods and Precautions Chrysanthemum Introduction
The chrysanthemum plant is 20-200 cm tall, usually 30-90 cm. The stem color is light green or brown; except for cliff chrysanthemums, it is mostly upright and branched, with the base semi-lignified. Leaves are alternate, ovate to oblong, with incisions and serrations along the edges. The flower head is terminal or axillary, single or several clustered. The ray florets are female flowers, and the tubular florets are bisexual flowers. Ray florets are divided into four categories: lower, spoon, tube, and aberrant, with rich colors including red, yellow, white, ink, purple-green, orange, pink, brown, snow-blue, light green, etc. Tubular florets develop into 'anemone petals' with various colors; flower colors include red, yellow, white, purple, green, pink, bicolor, and intermediate color series. The size and shape of the flower head vary: single-petaled, double-petaled; flat, spherical; long fringed, short fringed, flat fringed, and curled fringed; hollow and solid; upright and drooping; with many styles and complex varieties.
The chrysanthemum is a perennial herbaceous plant with an upright stem, branched or unbranched, covered with soft hairs. Leaves ovate to lanceolate, 5-15 cm long, pinnately lobed or half-lobed, with short petioles, the underside of the leaves covered with white short soft hairs, flower head 2.5-20 cm in diameter, varying in size. Involucral bracts in multiple layers, the outer surface covered with soft hairs. Ray florets of various colors. Tubular florets are yellow.
It can be affirmed that the origin of the chrysanthemum is multifaceted, polyphyletic rather than monophyletic. The chrysanthemum is a cross-pollinated plant. In the long course of practice, people have used interspecific, and even intergeneric, hybridization to obtain new traits in chrysanthemums, and through sexual processes such as backcrossing and reciprocal crossing to obtain the segregation of new traits. Through such repeated genetic recombination and trait segregation, new traits become more and more numerous. In this process, conscious artificial hybridization and random natural selection can both appear simultaneously or occur alternately. However, the artificial selection process of eliminating the inferior and selecting the superior always plays a leading role. The chromosomes of the chrysanthemum are extremely limited. It has only been recorded that the chrysanthemum is hexaploid, 2n=54. Another possible pathway for the production of new chrysanthemum varieties is somatic mutation (bud sport), obtaining new varieties by fixing bud sports.
Place of origin: China
Symbolism: purity, nobility, remembrance, success, longevity
Toxicity: non-toxic
Special uses: ornamental value, garden plant
Flowering period: autumn chrysanthemums September-October, summer chrysanthemums April-June
Medicinal value: clearing heat and detoxifying
Edible value: used in wine, porridge, tea
General plant height: 60-120 cm tall
Soil: rich in humus, loose and fertile, well-drained
Temperature: 18-21℃
Water: drought-tolerant, most averse to waterlogging
Sunlight: likes cool conditions, fairly cold-tolerant
Life form: perennial herb
Ecological habit: terrestrial plant
Environmental distribution: hilly areas
Distribution area: China, Japan

Morphological Characteristics of the Chrysanthemum
The chrysanthemum is a perennial herb, 60-150 cm tall. The stem is upright, branched or unbranched, covered with soft hairs. Leaves are alternate, with short petioles; the leaf blade is ovate to lanceolate, 5-15 cm long, pinnately lobed or half-lobed, with a wedge-shaped base, the underside covered with white short soft hairs, the edges with coarse large serrations or deep lobes, the base wedge-shaped, with a petiole. The flower head is solitary or several gathered at the top of the stem and branches, 2.5-20 cm in diameter, varying in size, single or several gathered at the top of the stem and branches; it differs greatly depending on the variety. Involucral bracts in multiple layers, the outer layer green, linear, with membranous edges, the outside covered with soft hairs; ray florets white, red, purple, or yellow. Flower colors include red, yellow, white, orange, purple, pink, dark red, and other colors; there are extremely many cultivated varieties, and the flower head is highly variable, with different forms and colors. The shape varies by variety and includes many types such as single-petaled, flat-petaled, and spoon-petaled, with tubular florets in the center, often all transformed into various ray florets; the flowering period is September-November. Stamens, pistils, and fruits are mostly undeveloped.
The young stem of the chrysanthemum is light green or brownish, covered with gray soft hairs or down. After flowering, most of the stem dies. In the following spring, tiller buds emerge from the underground stem. Chrysanthemum leaves are simple and alternate, with a petiole 1-2 cm long, with stipules or degenerated stipules on both sides below the petiole; the leaf is ovate to oblong, with incisions and serrations along the edges.
The leaf form varies by variety and can be divided into 8 categories: true leaf, deeply cut true leaf, long leaf, deeply cut long leaf, round leaf, hollyhock leaf, fluffy leaf, and boat leaf. The chrysanthemum flower (flower head) is borne at the top of the branch, about 2-30 cm in diameter, and the outside of the flower head is enclosed by green bracts forming the flower bud.
Two forms of flowers are borne on the flower head: one is the tubular flower, commonly known as the 'flower center', with the corolla joined into a tube, a bisexual flower, with one pistil in the center, the stigma 2-lobed, the ovary inferior with 1 chamber, surrounding the flower center 5 syngenesious stamens; the other is the ray flower, borne on the edge of the flower head, commonly known as the 'petal', with the stamens inside degenerated and 1 pistil. Ray flowers are mostly large and brightly colored, and are divided into 5 categories by shape: flat, spoon, tube, anemone, and aberrant. The achene (generally called the 'seed') is 1-3 mm long and 0.9-1.2 mm wide, slightly pointed at the upper end, flat and wedge-shaped, with longitudinal ridge lines on the surface, brown, containing one seed without endosperm; the fruit matures in January-February of the following year, and the thousand-grain weight is about 1 gram.
Chrysanthemum varieties have extremely great diversity, and taxonomists have explored the original ancestor of the chrysanthemum. Some consider the wild chrysanthemum to be the original ancestor of the chrysanthemum, some consider the sweet chrysanthemum to be the original ancestor, some consider its original ancestor to be the small red chrysanthemum, or they put forward a series of possible lists of original ancestors. Some Chinese scientific workers have even conducted intergeneric hybridization experiments and done some speculative and experimental work in exploring the true origin of the chrysanthemum. Whether speculation or experiment, they all try to pin the origin of the chrysanthemum to one or two species of the genus, and try to point out which variety among these vast varieties is the most primitive, that is, they want to find the most primitive chrysanthemum variety.
The chrysanthemum flower head is terminal or axillary, single or several clustered. The ray florets are female flowers, and the tubular florets are bisexual flowers. Ray florets are divided into four categories: lower, spoon, tube, and aberrant, with rich colors including red, yellow, white, ink, purple, green, orange, pink, brown, snow-blue, light green, etc. Tubular florets develop into 'anemone petals' with various colors; flower colors include red, yellow, white, purple, green, pink, bicolor, and intermediate color series.
The size and shape of the flower head vary: single-petaled, double-petaled; flat, spherical; long fringed, short fringed, flat fringed, and curled fringed; hollow and solid; upright and drooping; with many styles and complex varieties.
The achene (generally called the 'seed') is 1-3 mm long and 0.9-1.2 mm wide, slightly pointed at the upper end, flat and wedge-shaped, with longitudinal ridge lines on the surface, brown, containing one seed without endosperm; the fruit matures in January-February of the following year, and the thousand-grain weight is about 1 gram. Autumn chrysanthemums September-October, summer chrysanthemums April-June.

Ecological Habits of the Chrysanthemum
The chrysanthemum has strong adaptability, likes cool conditions, and is fairly cold-tolerant. The optimum growing temperature is 18-21℃, the maximum is 32℃, and the minimum is 10℃. The underground rhizome generally tolerates a low temperature limit of -10℃. The minimum night temperature during the flowering period is 17℃, and during the flowering period (middle and late) it can drop to 15-13℃. It likes full sunlight but is also slightly shade-tolerant. It is fairly drought-tolerant and most averse to waterlogging. It likes high, dry terrain and deep soil rich in humus, loose, fertile, and well-drained sandy loam. It can grow in soils from slightly acidic to neutral, with pH 6.2-6.7 being better. Continuous cropping should be avoided.
Autumn chrysanthemums are long-night, short-day plants; under a long-day photoperiod of 14.5 hours per day they carry out stem and leaf vegetative growth, and more than 12 hours of darkness per day with a night temperature of 10℃ is suitable for flower bud development. But different varieties respond differently to sunlight.
The chrysanthemum has strong adaptability, likes cool conditions, and is fairly cold-tolerant. The optimum growing temperature is 18-21 degrees, the maximum growing temperature is 32 degrees, and the minimum is 10 degrees. The underground rhizome generally tolerates a low temperature limit of minus 10 degrees. It prefers loose, fertile, well-drained sandy loam and can grow from slightly acidic to neutral. Continuous cropping should be avoided. The chrysanthemum is a short-day flower and has a certain resistance to toxic gases such as sulfur dioxide and chlorine.
The chrysanthemum is a short-day plant and can bloom earlier under short-day conditions. It likes sunlight and avoids shade. It is fairly drought-tolerant and fears waterlogging. It likes a warm, humid climate but can also tolerate cold; in the severe winter season the rhizome can overwinter underground. The flowers can withstand light frost, but the seedling growth and branching and bud-bearing stages require higher temperatures. The optimum growing temperature is about 20℃.
The chrysanthemum has strong adaptability, likes cool conditions, and is fairly cold-tolerant. The optimum growing temperature is 18-21℃, the maximum is 32℃, and the minimum is 10℃. The underground rhizome generally tolerates a low temperature limit of -10℃. The minimum night temperature during the flowering period is 17℃, and during the flowering period (middle and late) it can drop to 15-13℃. It likes full sunlight but is also slightly shade-tolerant. It is fairly drought-tolerant and most averse to waterlogging. It likes high, dry terrain and deep soil rich in humus, loose, fertile, and well-drained sandy loam. It can grow in soils from slightly acidic to neutral, with pH 6.2-6.7 being better. Continuous cropping should be avoided. Autumn chrysanthemums are long-night plants; under a long-day photoperiod of 14.5 hours per day they carry out stem and leaf vegetative growth, and more than 12 hours of darkness per day with a night temperature of 100 degrees Celsius is suitable for flower bud development. But different varieties respond differently to sunlight.

Cultivation Techniques of the Chrysanthemum: Cultivation Methods
By cultivation method, chrysanthemums can be divided into four major categories: potted chrysanthemums, ground-cover chrysanthemums, cut flower chrysanthemums, and shaped chrysanthemums (artistic chrysanthemums).
Single-stem chrysanthemum (variety chrysanthemum, specimen chrysanthemum): Cultivated from large chrysanthemums, one plant per pot, bearing one flower, a single plant standing alone. It best fully reflects the characteristics and traits of the variety. Besides being ornamental, it can be used for variety identification, hence it is also called variety chrysanthemum or specimen chrysanthemum.
Multi-stem chrysanthemum (spray chrysanthemum, multi-stem variety chrysanthemum): Cultivated from large-flowered chrysanthemums, one plant per pot with multiple stems, bearing several to more than a dozen flowers. Used for display and viewing in courtyards, halls, etc.
Desk chrysanthemum: Large chrysanthemums planted in small pots, one plant per pot, one flower per plant, with upright branches and elegant leaves, the skirt leaves covering the pot, a small plant with large flowers, less than a foot tall, suitable for placing on a desk, and can be arranged in halls, bedrooms, and studies.
Tile-cylinder chrysanthemum: Chrysanthemum seedlings are planted in a tile cylinder. After budding, remove the tile cylinder and move them into pots for viewing.
Pot-sleeved chrysanthemum: Chrysanthemum seedlings are first planted in the ground, and when the chrysanthemum plants have grown to a certain size, they are slipped into clay pots through the pot holes for cultivation; after color shows, the roots at the bottom of the pot are cut off and the pots are lifted for viewing.
Ground-cover chrysanthemum: Ground-cover chrysanthemums refer to a specific group of small chrysanthemum varieties mainly cultivated as open-ground ground cover. Ground-cover chrysanthemums have the characteristic of macro-group beauty and can be used for garden green space cultivation, and can also be used in clump planting, belt planting, patch planting, flower bed planting, and potted flower arrangements to decorate scenic spots.
Cut flower chrysanthemum: Cut flower chrysanthemums are a cultivation method in which fresh flowers are cut from cultivated chrysanthemum plants with stems and leaves for use. They are produced by field planting, and by variety can be divided into large-flowered, medium-flowered, and multi-flower-stem. By cultivation method, they can be divided into single-stem and multi-stem.
Shaped chrysanthemum: Shaped chrysanthemums use different chrysanthemum varieties and, through artistic treatment, cultivate the chrysanthemum plants into a specific pattern for viewing.
Large standard chrysanthemum (standard chrysanthemum): Hundreds to thousands of flowers of the same size and neatly arranged are borne on a single chrysanthemum plant. Through hanging and tying and shaping, it forms a round flat shape or hemispherical shape. The wreath diameter can reach 3-4 m, and some are tied into patterns. Large standard chrysanthemums are mainly used for festivals and chrysanthemum exhibitions to show magnificence and enhance the atmosphere.
Cliff chrysanthemum: Cultivated from small chrysanthemums, it has a very long main stem, numerous branches, dense flowers, wide at the back and narrow at the front, with the head and tail well-proportioned, long and drooping in form; the small ones are about 1 m long, and the large ones can reach 4-5 m. This chrysanthemum is used for environmental decoration, placed in halls or beside rockeries and rocks in courtyards, full of wild charm.
Tower chrysanthemum: A chrysanthemum plant artificially cultivated to form an upright main stem, distinct layers, and well-proportioned and coordinated flower colors, like a pagoda. This chrysanthemum can be composed of several or more than a dozen layers and can reach 3-4 m tall. Placed in a courtyard standing among clumps of flowers, it stands out like a crane among chickens, a magnificent sight.
Shaped chrysanthemum (tied chrysanthemum): Small star-flowered chrysanthemums are tied, either still in the pot or removed from the pot and wrapped in small cattail bags, onto flower frames made of bamboo or metal rods in the forms of pavilions, terraces, towers, chambers, and various animals, to add to the garden landscape.
Bonsai chrysanthemum: Mostly using small chrysanthemums as material, applying bonsai techniques, and through pruning, shaping, and processing into various postures such as ancient trees and cliffs, or artistic bonsai with a certain theme. Bonsai chrysanthemums include the stump chrysanthemum type: original wood, grafted, epiphytic; and the landscape chrysanthemum type: forest style, chrysanthemum-stone style, water-and-dry style. In addition, there are classifications by flower-holding form, that is, divided by the posture changes of the arrangement of the chrysanthemum's ray florets, including incurved, reflexed, folded, natural, exposed-heart, and irregular. Some classify by chrysanthemum plant height, divided into tall, medium, and short; and some classify by chrysanthemum plant growth vigor, divided into strong, medium, and weak. Although there are many classification methods, the more commonly applied classification method is by petal and flower type.
Potted Cultivation Management(Potted chrysanthemums can be roughly summarized into three methods.)
One-stage root system cultivation method
This method is mostly used in the Yangtze River and Pearl River basins and the southwestern regions. That is, cuttings in May, potting in June, stopping pinching in early August, strengthening fertilizer and water management in September to promote growth, and flowering in October-November. The methods of potting chrysanthemums differ from place to place, mainly the following five: potting immediately after cutting, which has the advantages of less root damage, true flower color, and a long flowering period, but is more labor-intensive; ground planting in tile cylinders then potting, in which the cuttings are planted in a tile cylinder formed by three tiles for cultivation, and dug up and potted when the flower buds color up. This method saves more labor than the former, but the roots are easily damaged when digging up the seedlings, and the flowering period and flower quality are inferior to the former; ground planting with pot sleeving, in which the cuttings are planted in high beds, and in early July a large-hole pot is slipped over them, letting the seedlings grow out through the pot holes, adding soil in stages, and cutting the underground roots when the color shows; in-pot grafting, in which Artemisia seedlings are sown and raised in March, chrysanthemums are grafted onto the Artemisia seedlings in May, and thereafter managed the same as the cutting-and-potting method. Propagation by this method gives robust plants, large flowers, and earlier flowering, but it is more labor-intensive; ground planting with grafting and pot sleeving, in which the raised Artemisia apiacea seedlings are planted in the beds in March, grafted in May, and moved into pots when the flower buds show color. Its advantages are convenient management, robust plants, and larger flowers. The disadvantage is heavier root damage.
Two-stage root system cultivation method
This method is commonly used in Northeast China and is also applied in places such as Jiangxi and Hunan. Take cuttings in May-June; once the seedlings have taken root, pot them up, adding soil until the pot is 1/3-1/2 full. From late July to early August, stop pinching out the growing tips. After the side branches grow past the rim of the pot, use the branch-coiling method to adjust the plant's height, and secure the branches so that they are evenly distributed, then add a cover on top; before long, roots will emerge from the coiled branches. When the branches have grown to a certain height, the branches can be coiled and adjusted once more, then fill in with plenty of fertile soil. Using this method, the chrysanthemum has a neat and attractive shape, a relatively short stature, full leaves, sturdy branches, large flowers and a long flowering period. Because roots also form on the coiled branches, it is called the two-stage root system cultivation method.
Three-stage root system cultivation method
A cultivation method commonly used in North China. From winter cuttings to flowering in November of the following year, it takes 1 year. Famous chrysanthemum growers in Beijing have summarized the following 4 stages: winter storage, in late autumn and early winter select sturdy basal shoots for cuttings to raise seedlings; spring planting, in mid-April divide the seedlings and pot them up, using ordinary leaf mould on top of the pot without adding fertilizer; summer settling, use pinching to promote the growth of basal shoots, and when the basal shoots emerging from the soil reach about 10 cm in mid-July, select seedlings with sound development and plump buds for repotting and final planting; autumn care, in early to mid-July move the selected sturdy seedlings into pots 20-24 cm in diameter, using ordinary potting soil plus 0.5% superphosphate. Tip the chrysanthemum seedlings out of the small pots together with the root ball, plant them with the new shoot as the center, cut away surplus tiller buds, and add soil to the original seedling depth and firm it down. After repotting, the new plant and the mother plant grow at the same time; once the new plant has developed vigorously, cut the old plant off level with the soil surface. After cutting away the mother plant, loosen the soil, fill in ordinary potting soil, and add 20%-30% well-rotted compost. At this point the pot is 80% full of fertile soil; 1 week later the third stage of new roots emerges, and the new and old three stages form a powerful root system. In the entire cultivation process, the plants are repotted 1 time, soil is added 2 times, and the plant roots 3 times.

Chrysanthemum cultivation methods and growth management
For potted chrysanthemums, a short, sturdy plant shape with large, brightly colored flowers and basal leaves that do not drop is best; if the plant is too tall, it affects the ornamental effect.
To dwarf chrysanthemums, the following measures can be taken:
1. Newly turned soil, water thoroughly, apply sufficient fertilizer, and spray the soil surface with a 600-800 times dilution of Xin Gaozhi Mo; this can keep fertilizer and moisture in the ground, prevent water evaporation, protect against sun and drought, preserve warmth and prevent freezing, prevent soil crusting, and suffocate and isolate sources of pests and diseases.
2. Shallow insertion and shallow planting: shallow insertion can avoid the effects of high temperature and dryness, increase the survival rate of cuttings, and also reduce the height of the chrysanthemum. One month after cuttings, the first transplanting can be done. When transplanting, plant shallowly to prevent excessive water and nutrients from causing leggy growth. After the seedlings are transplanted, spray Xin Gaozhi Mo, which can effectively prevent above-ground water from evaporating, prevent the seedling body from transpiring water, isolate pests and diseases, shorten the seedling recovery period, and help them adapt quickly to the new environment and grow healthily.
3. Control water and fertilizer: to cultivate chrysanthemums with short plants and large flowers, water and fertilizer management must follow the principle of "restrain first, promote later," that is, during the vegetative growth period, withhold water and fertilizer to prevent leggy growth and achieve the goal of dwarfing the plant.
4. In the late vegetative growth period and the bud-setting and flowering period, increase watering, fertilizing and weeding, and spray Huaduo Zhuangdiling, which can promote plump and strong buds, thick petals, bright flower color, rich fragrance and a longer flowering period.

Propagation methods of chrysanthemums
Chrysanthemums are propagated by methods such as cuttings, division, grafting and tissue culture.
1. Cuttings can be divided into bud cuttings, softwood cuttings and leaf-bud cuttings. For bud cuttings, in autumn and winter cut off basal shoots from the plant for rooting.
The standard for selecting buds is that they are relatively far from the plant and have plump buds. Remove the lower leaves, insert them at a plant spacing of 3-4 cm and row spacing of 4-5 cm in flower pots or cutting beds in a greenhouse or plastic tunnel, and keep the room temperature at 7-8°C; after the weather warms in spring, plant them outdoors. Softwood cuttings, the most widely used method, are mostly taken in April-May; cut softwood shoots 8-10 cm long as cuttings, and at a temperature of 18-21°C they root in about 3 weeks and can be planted out in about 4 weeks. For open-ground cutting beds, the medium is best as plain sand, and the bed should be shaded. Full-light mist cutting beds need no shading. For leaf-bud cuttings, cut a leaf with an axillary bud from the branch and insert it; this method is only used to propagate rare varieties.
2. Division
Generally around Qingming, dig up the chrysanthemum plant, separate it along the natural form of the roots with roots attached, and plant them separately in pots.
3. Grafting
To make chrysanthemums grow strong and vigorous, and to create "Shixiangjin" or large trained chrysanthemums, yellow wormwood or green wormwood can be used as rootstock for grafting. Sow wormwood in late autumn, sow in a greenhouse in winter, or raise seedlings in a hotbed in March; in late April, when the seedlings are 3-4 cm tall, move them into pots or plant them out in the field; in May-June, carry out cleft grafting on sunny days.
4. Tissue culture
Using tissue culture technology to propagate chrysanthemums has the advantages of rapid propagation, a large number of seedlings, virus elimination and maintaining varietal characteristics. The basic medium is MS, with an appropriate amount of plant hormones added, pH 5.8. Use chrysanthemum shoot tips, tender stems or flower buds as explants, cut into 0.5 cm segments and inoculate. The culture room temperature is 25°C ±1°C. Light for 8 hours daily, with a light intensity of 3000-4000 lux. After 1-2 months of culture, seedlings can be induced.

Disease control of chrysanthemums
Common diseases of chrysanthemums include brown spot, black spot, powdery mildew and root rot. The pathogens of the above diseases are all fungi, all caused by excessive soil moisture and poor drainage, ventilation and light transmission.
Therefore, it is advisable to choose a place with good ecological conditions for cultivation, and attention must be paid to draining waterlogged areas, removing diseased plants and diseased leaves, and burning residual roots.
The potting soil should be disinfected with 1:8 formalin solution, and during the growing period it can also be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, 80% wettable zineb solution, or 50% wettable thiophanate solution.
Pests include aphids, red spiders, inchworms, chrysanthemum longhorn beetles (chrysanthemum borers), white grubs, leaf-miner moth larvae, etc., which can be controlled by manual capture and spraying.

Variety classification of chrysanthemums
The genus Chrysanthemum has more than 30 species, 17 of which are native to China, mainly including: wild chrysanthemum, white chrysanthemum, Chrysanthemum vestitum, sweet chrysanthemum, small red chrysanthemum, purple-flowered wild chrysanthemum, chrysanthemum greens, etc. It is a perennial herbaceous plant. It prefers cool conditions and is relatively cold-tolerant; the optimum growth temperature is 18-21°C; the underground rhizome is drought-tolerant and most averse to waterlogging; it prefers loam on high ground with deep soil, rich in humus, loose and fertile, and well drained. It can grow in slightly acidic to slightly alkaline soil. pH 6.2-6.7 is best. It is a short-day plant, carrying out vegetative growth under long days of 14.5 hours per day, and darkness of more than 12 hours per day with a night temperature of 10°C is suitable for flower bud development.
According to cultivation form, it is divided into cultivation types such as spray chrysanthemum, single-stem chrysanthemum, large trained chrysanthemum, cliff chrysanthemum, artistic chrysanthemum and table chrysanthemum; according to the appearance and form of the petals, it is divided into cultivation types such as round-incurved, reflexed-incurved, reversed-incurved, irregular-incurved, open-centered incurved and flying-curved. Chrysanthemums within different types are also named with various variety names.
The chrysanthemum is the third of China's ten famous flowers, one of the four gentlemen among flowers (plum blossom, orchid, bamboo and chrysanthemum), and also one of the world's four major cut flowers (chrysanthemum, rose, carnation and gladiolus), with the highest production. Because the chrysanthemum has the character of enduring cold and proudly defying snow, Tao Yuanming wrote the famous line "Picking chrysanthemums by the eastern fence, I gaze leisurely at the southern mountains." Chinese people have the custom of enjoying chrysanthemums and drinking chrysanthemum wine on the Double Ninth Festival. Tang dynasty poet Meng Haoran's "Visiting an Old Friend's Farm" says: "When the Double Ninth Festival comes, I will come back for the chrysanthemums." In ancient myths and legends, the chrysanthemum was also endowed with the meanings of good fortune and longevity.
The chrysanthemum is a precious ornamental flower developed through long-term artificial selection and breeding. Around the 8th century AD, the ornamental chrysanthemum was introduced from China to Japan. In the late 17th century, Dutch merchants introduced Chinese chrysanthemums to Europe; in the 18th century they were introduced to France, and in the mid-19th century to North America. Since then, Chinese chrysanthemums have spread throughout the world.
Flowering period
Summer chrysanthemum: also known as Five-Nine chrysanthemum. It flowers once each year in the 5th and 9th lunar months. Nowadays, using protective facilities for cultivation, it can flower once each in May and October of the solar calendar.
Autumn chrysanthemum: the flowering period is divided into early and late. Early chrysanthemums flower in mid-to-late September and are medium-sized chrysanthemums. Late chrysanthemums flower in October-November and are large chrysanthemums; these are the most commonly cultivated autumn chrysanthemums.
Cold chrysanthemum: also called winter chrysanthemum. The flowering period is from December to January of the following year.
Flower diameter
Large chrysanthemum: flower diameter above 10 cm, mostly cultivated as spray chrysanthemums and specimen chrysanthemums.
Medium chrysanthemum: flower diameter 6-10 cm, often cultivated as flowerbed chrysanthemums and large trained chrysanthemums.
Small chrysanthemum: flower diameter below 6 cm, belonging to the baby's breath type, and can be used as pot chrysanthemums, cliff chrysanthemums, tied chrysanthemums, bonsai chrysanthemums, etc., for decorating gardens or display.
Color
Single color: single color means one flower has one color, including yellow, white, purple, red, pink, green, ink, mud gold, snow blue, etc. In addition to the basic color series, each color series can also be divided into multiple tones. This is relatively difficult to describe and accurately grasp.
Compound color: compound color means one flower has two or more colors, and the color variation is also relatively rich. There are flowers with two colors in one bloom, such as "Erqiao," which is half red and half yellow, and "Yuanyanghe," which is red and yellow; there are those with two colors on the back and front, such as "Jinbei Dahong," with a yellow back and a red front; there are those where the petals have one color as the base color with stripes or spots of other colors on top, such as "Meihualu," with pink-purple as the base color and white spots on top; there are those where the base of the petal is one color and the tip is another, such as "Chixian Jinzhu," with red tube petals and yellow tips; and there are those where the center flower is one color and the outer flowers are another color, but with little contrast, such as "Chufeng" and "Lüshui."
Petal shape
Flat petal: the ligulate flowers extend in a flat plane; according to the width or narrowness of the petals, they are divided into broad petals (the widest part of the petal is more than 2 cm), such as "Shuaiqi"; medium petals (the widest part of the petal is 1-2 cm), such as "Mohe"; and narrow petals (the widest part of the petal is less than 1 cm), such as "Lixiangju."
Spoon petal: the ligulate flowers are an intermediate type between flat petals and tube petals; the united part at the base of the corolla is longer than in flat petals, and the petal tip opens out like a spoon, called the "spoon blade." Spoon petals are further divided by the length of the spoon blade into long spoon petals, medium spoon petals and short spoon petals. By shape, they are also divided into straight-extending, inward-curving and reflexed.
Tube petal: the ligulate flowers extend in a tube shape. According to whether the tip of the tube is open or closed, they are divided into open tubes and closed tubes. According to the thickness of the tube, they are divided into thick tubes (diameter at the middle of the tube more than 0.6 cm), medium tubes (diameter at the middle of the tube 0.3-0.6 cm) and thin tubes (diameter at the middle of the tube less than 0.3 cm).
Quill petal: the ligulate flowers are flat petals, spoon petals or tube petals in 1-3 whorls. The tubular flowers become quill-petal-shaped (also called star-tube-shaped).
Irregular petal: the petals are unusual and can be divided into burr petals, dragon-claw petals and velvet-cut petals.
Leaf shape
The leaf morphology of chrysanthemums varies relatively little and is often used as one of the important bases for identifying chrysanthemum varieties. According to their morphology, they can be divided into the following types.
Normal leaf: the leaf shape is regular, with moderate length and width, size, and thickness. The main vein, branch veins and notches are relatively neat.
Deeply lobed normal leaf: the leaf shape is similar to the normal leaf, the notches are deeper than those of the normal leaf, and the tip is pointed.
Long leaf: the leaf shape is narrower and longer than the normal leaf, with deeper notches. The five lobes are neat.
Deeply lobed long leaf: the leaf shape is narrow and long, the notches are deeper than those of the long leaf, and the tip is pointed.
Round leaf: the leaf length and width are similar, slightly round, the leaf flesh is relatively thick, and the serrations are shallow and blunt.
Sunflower leaf: the leaf area is large, with shallow lobes shaped like sunflower leaves.
Artemisia leaf: the leaf shape is slender and long, deeply divided into 5 narrow, long pinnate lobes. It resembles artemisia leaves.
Reversed leaf: the leaf margin is reversed, and the leaf surface protrudes like an overturned boat, with relatively shallow or irregular notches.
Stipitate leaf: leaf flesh or stipules are attached at the base of the petiole.
Ornamental chrysanthemum
The chrysanthemum is one of the important flowers in garden applications, widely used in flowerbeds, ground cover, pot flowers and cut flowers, etc. It has been chosen as the city flower of Taiyuan City, Shanxi Province. Besides its ornamental value, the chrysanthemum is also a practical plant. Practical chrysanthemums include edible chrysanthemums, tea chrysanthemums and medicinal chrysanthemums, etc.
Edible chrysanthemum
The main varieties include Lahuang, Xihuang, Xichibai, Guangzhouhong, etc., with Guangdong as the main producing area. These edible chrysanthemums are mainly used as precious ingredients for banquet soups and hot pot, and are popular and sell well in Hong Kong, China and Macao, China. Chrysanthemum greens are a vegetable favored by ordinary people in the Nanjing area of Jiangsu, usually used in soup or stir-fried, and have the effect of clearing heat and improving eyesight.
Tea chrysanthemum
Mainly including Zhejiang Hangju, Henan Huaiju, Anhui Chuju and Boju. After scenting, tea chrysanthemums can be mixed with tea leaves or drunk alone. Drinking the tea brewed from tea chrysanthemums not only has the unique fresh fragrance of chrysanthemums, but can also reduce internal heat, nourish the liver and improve eyesight.
Medicinal chrysanthemum
Mainly including yellow chrysanthemum and white chrysanthemum, as well as Gongju from Shexian in Anhui, Luju from Hebei, Chuanju from Sichuan, etc. The tea chrysanthemums mentioned above can also be included among the medicinal ones. Medicinal chrysanthemums have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, blood pressure-lowering and coronary heart disease-preventing effects.
Wild chrysanthemum also has medicinal value; wild chrysanthemum is also known as wild yellow chrysanthemum, Kuyi, mountain chrysanthemum and sweet chrysanthemum.
By morphology
According to the shape and size of the dried capitulum and the length of the ligulate flowers, medicinal chrysanthemums can be divided into 4 major categories, namely white chrysanthemum, daisy chrysanthemum, Gongju chrysanthemum and Hangju chrysanthemum. Within each category, they are named according to their place of origin. Among the white chrysanthemum category, Boju produced in Bozhou, Anhui, has the best medicinal quality (slightly yellowish is the genuine article); next are Huaiju from Wuzhi, Henan, Chuanju from Zhongjiang, Sichuan, Qiju from Anguo, Hebei, Deju from Deqing, Zhejiang, etc.
By flowering period
According to how early or late the flowering period is, there are early chrysanthemums (opening in September), autumn chrysanthemums (October to November), and late chrysanthemums (December to January), but through the hard work of horticulturists in cultivation and by changing light conditions, there are also May chrysanthemums that bloom in May, July chrysanthemums that bloom in July, and August chrysanthemums that bloom in August. According to flower diameter size, those with a flower diameter above 10 cm are called large chrysanthemums, those with a flower diameter of 10-6 cm are medium chrysanthemums, and those with a flower diameter below 6 cm are small chrysanthemums. According to petal type, they can be divided into three major categories, flat petals, tube petals and spoon petals, and more than ten types.
The Chinese people have given great attention and interest to the chrysanthemum, and the earliest reason was not only its unique ornamental quality, but mainly its medicinal value. In the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, Qu Yuan's Li Sao already said, "In the evening I eat the fallen petals of autumn chrysanthemums," which shows that at that time the flowers of the chrysanthemum were already used as a vegetable. However, by the Han and Tang dynasties, great attention was paid to the medicinal value of the chrysanthemum. The flower of the chrysanthemum is a cooling medicine; its taste is cold, sweet and bitter; it disperses wind and clears heat, improves eyesight and calms the liver. This is called medicinal chrysanthemum. According to the size and color quality of the capitulum, medicinal chrysanthemums also have their own classification method.
By seed type
Varieties are classified by evolutionary order and by cultivation and use.
The specific classification is as follows:
(1) Small chrysanthemum series (under normal cultivation conditions, flower diameter less than 6 cm): small-wheel type, small-ball type, small-star type, small-quill type.
(2) Medium and large chrysanthemum series (under natural cultivation conditions, flower diameter greater than 6 cm):
1. Petal flower category (ligulate flowers mainly flat petals): single-petal type, semi-double type, lotus-seat type, rolled type, ball type, rolled-spreading type, pendulous-ribbon type.
2. Tube flower category (ligulate flowers are tube petals): tube-ball type, tube-disk type, spreading type, pine-needle type, dancing-ring type, bead-tube type.
3. Quill-petal flower category (tubular flowers in the quill-petal form): quill-petal type.
4. Abnormal flower category (small flowers densely bearing burrs and with tips split like dragon claws, etc.): burr type, dragon-claw type.
Classification
Tea chrysanthemum
Mainly including Zhejiang Hangju, Henan Huaiju, Anhui Chuju and Boju. After scenting, tea chrysanthemums can be mixed with tea leaves or drunk alone. Drinking the tea brewed from tea chrysanthemums not only has the unique fresh fragrance of chrysanthemums, but can also reduce internal heat, nourish the liver and improve eyesight.
Medicinal chrysanthemum
Mainly including yellow chrysanthemum and white chrysanthemum, as well as Gongju from Shexian in Anhui, Luju from Hebei, Chuanju from Sichuan, etc. The tea chrysanthemums mentioned above can also be included among the medicinal ones. Medicinal chrysanthemums have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, blood pressure-lowering and coronary heart disease-preventing effects.
Wild chrysanthemum also has medicinal value; wild chrysanthemum is also known as wild yellow chrysanthemum, Kuyi, mountain chrysanthemum and sweet chrysanthemum.
Ornamental chrysanthemum
The chrysanthemum is one of the important flowers in garden applications, widely used in flowerbeds, ground cover, pot flowers and cut flowers, etc. It has been chosen as the city flower of Taiyuan City, Shanxi Province. Besides its ornamental value, the chrysanthemum is also a practical plant. Practical chrysanthemums include edible chrysanthemums, tea chrysanthemums and medicinal chrysanthemums, etc.
Edible chrysanthemum
The main varieties include Lahuang, Xihuang, Xichibai, Guangzhouhong, etc., with Guangdong as the main producing area. These edible chrysanthemums are mainly used as precious ingredients for banquet soups and hot pot, and are popular and sell well in Hong Kong, China and Macao, China. Chrysanthemum greens are a vegetable favored by ordinary people in the Nanjing area of Jiangsu, usually used in soup or stir-fried, and have the effect of clearing heat and improving eyesight.
Wild chrysanthemum (original species): perennial herb, 0.25-1 m tall, with long or short underground creeping stems. Stems and branches sparsely hairy, with slightly more or more hairs on the upper parts and inflorescence branches. Basal leaves and lower leaves fall off during the flowering period. Middle stem leaves ovate, long-ovate or elliptic-ovate, pinnately parted, shallowly lobed, or indistinctly divided with shallow serrations on the margin. Petiole base without auricles or with divided leaf auricles. Both surfaces the same color or nearly the same color, light green. Capitula 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, mostly arranged at the tips of stems and branches in loose corymbose-paniculate inflorescences, or a few arranged at the stem tip in corymbose inflorescences. Involucral bracts about 5 layers, the outer layer ovate or ovate-triangular, the middle layer ovate, the inner layer long-elliptic, 11 mm long. All bracts with white or brown broad membranous margins, apex obtuse or rounded. Ligulate flowers yellow, apex entire or 2-3-toothed. Achenes 1.5-1.8 mm long. Flowering period June-November.
Sweet chrysanthemum (original species): perennial herb, 0.3-1.5 m tall, with underground creeping stems. Stems erect, much branched from above the middle, or only the upper part with corymbose inflorescence branches. Basal and lower leaves fall off during the flowering period. Middle stem leaves ovate, broadly ovate or elliptic-ovate. Twice pinnately divided. All leaves the same color or nearly the same color on both surfaces. Petiole base with divided leaf auricles or without auricles. Capitula usually numerous, arranged at the tips of stems and branches in loose or somewhat dense compound corymbose inflorescences. Involucre saucer-shaped, involucral bracts about 5 layers. Middle and inner layers ovate, long-elliptic to oblanceolate, all bracts with rounded apex and white or light brown membranous margins. Ligulate flowers yellow, ligules elliptic, apex entire or with 2-3 indistinct teeth. Achenes 1.2-1.5 mm long. Flowering and fruiting period May-November. [7]
Small red chrysanthemum (original species): perennial herb, 15-60 cm tall, with underground creeping rhizomes. Stems erect or curved at the base, branched from the base or middle, but usually only with corymbose inflorescence branches at the stem tip. Middle stem leaves reniform, semicircular, nearly round or broadly ovate, usually 3-5 palmately or palmate-pinnately shallowly lobed or parted, all lobes with blunt teeth, sharp teeth or bristle-tipped sharp teeth on the margin. Root leaves and lower stem leaves with the same shape as the middle stem leaves but smaller; capitula few (about 3) to many (about 12) arranged at the tips of stems and branches in loose corymbose inflorescences, rarely capitula solitary at the stem tip. Involucre saucer-shaped; involucral bracts 4-5 layers. All bracts with white or brown membranous margins. Ligulate flowers white, pink or purple, ligules long, apex with 2-3 teeth. Achenes 2 mm long, apex obliquely truncate, narrowed below, with 4-6 veined ribs. Flowering and fruiting period July-October.

Distribution range of chrysanthemums
Chrysanthemums are found throughout China's towns and villages, especially abundantly in Beijing, Nanjing, Shanghai, Hangzhou, Qingdao, Tianjin, Kaifeng, Wuhan, Chengdu, Changsha, Xiangtan, Xi'an, Shenyang, Guangzhou, and Xiaolan Town in Zhongshan City, etc. Around the 8th century, the ornamental chrysanthemum was introduced from China to Japan and was esteemed as the pattern of the Japanese national emblem. In the late 17th century, Dutch merchants introduced Chinese chrysanthemums to Europe; in the 18th century they were introduced to France, and in the mid-19th century to North America. Since then, Chinese chrysanthemums have spread throughout the world.
It grows by roadsides, on hillsides and in open fields. It is distributed in most areas of the country. The chrysanthemum originated in China and was continuously selected and bred by the ancients to become the Chinese cultivated chrysanthemum. Today's cultivated varieties are highly hybridized horticultural varieties.
The Japanese chrysanthemum was formed by crossing the Chinese cultivated chrysanthemum introduced to Japan with the Japanese wild chrysanthemum; the Chinese cultivated chrysanthemum is also an important parent of Western chrysanthemums.
The chrysanthemum is a perennial herbaceous plant of the Asteraceae family, with petals in the form of ligules or tubes. The chrysanthemum is a precious ornamental flower developed through long-term artificial selection and breeding, also called artistic chrysanthemum, with more than three thousand varieties. The chrysanthemum is one of China's ten famous flowers, with a cultivation history of more than three thousand years in China. Chinese chrysanthemums were introduced to Europe around the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.
Chinese people love chrysanthemums very much; since the Song dynasty there has been an annual chrysanthemum festival among the people. Poets and painters of successive Chinese dynasties wrote many poems and paintings on the theme of chrysanthemums, and thus the large number of literary and artistic works praising chrysanthemums and the experience of artistic chrysanthemum cultivation have left people many famous records and fine works, and will be passed down for a long time.
The chrysanthemum stem is erect, branched or unbranched, covered with soft hairs. Leaves ovate to lanceolate, pinnately shallowly lobed or parted, with short petioles, the lower leaf surface covered with white short soft hairs. Capitula, of varying sizes. Involucral bracts in multiple layers, the outer surface covered with soft hairs. Ligulate flowers of various colors. Tubular flowers yellow. The chrysanthemum is a short-day plant and can bloom earlier under short-day conditions.
Of the more than 30 species in the genus Chrysanthemum, 17 are native to China.
For example, wild yellow chrysanthemum is distributed throughout the country, purple wild chrysanthemum is distributed in East China, North China and Northeast China, Chrysanthemum vestitum is distributed in Central China, sweet chrysanthemum is mostly distributed in Northeast and North China, small red chrysanthemum is mostly distributed in North China and Northeast China, and chrysanthemum greens are produced in Nanjing. Around the 8th century, the ornamental chrysanthemum was introduced from China to Japan and was esteemed as the pattern of the Japanese national emblem. In the late 17th century, Dutch merchants introduced Chinese chrysanthemums to Europe; in the 18th century they were introduced to France, and in the mid-19th century to North America. Since then, Chinese chrysanthemums have spread throughout the world.
Chrysanthemum cultivation techniques were further improved, chrysanthemum varieties increased, and chrysanthemum records also became more numerous. For example, Huang Xingzeng, Ma Bozhou, Zhou Lüchen, Gao Lian, Le Xiuyuan and others all wrote works, including "Chrysanthemum Talks." In Huang Xingzeng's "Chrysanthemum Record," 220 chrysanthemum varieties were recorded. Li Shizhen's "Compendium of Materia Medica" (1580) and Wang Xiangjin's "Qunfangpu" (1630) both contain relatively extensive records of chrysanthemums. "Qunfangpu" made a comprehensive study of chrysanthemum varieties, recording 92 yellow varieties, 73 white varieties, 32 purple varieties, 35 red varieties, 22 pink varieties, and 17 unusual varieties, totaling 6 categories and 271 varieties; with at least 16 flower types.

Medicinal or dietary therapeutic value of chrysanthemums
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Nutritional effects
Chrysanthemums contain components such as stachydrine, robinin, luteolin glycoside, cosmos glycoside, adenine, choline and glucosides; they are especially rich in volatile oil, and the oil mainly contains substances such as chrysanthenone, borneol and bornyl acetate.
In terms of effects and actions, chrysanthemums have the effects of calming the liver and improving eyesight, dispersing wind and clearing heat, and relieving cough and pain; they are markedly effective in treating conditions such as headache and dizziness, red and swollen eyes with pain, wind-heat common cold and cough.
Food preparation
Chrysanthemum porridge
[Ingredients]: chrysanthemum, rice, coix seed, lotus seeds, lily, goji berries, red dates.
[Steps]:
1. Soak the chrysanthemums in hot water; after half an hour, pour out the chrysanthemum water and set aside;
3. Wash the rice, coix seed and lotus seeds, and pour them into the pot together with the chrysanthemum water. After soaking for 1 hour, bring to a boil over high heat, skim off the foam, and continue cooking over low heat;
4. When about 60% cooked, add the washed lily, goji berries, red dates and chrysanthemum petals, and continue cooking over low heat for 20 minutes.
Cassia seed chrysanthemum porridge
[Ingredients]: cassia seeds, chrysanthemum, glutinous rice or rice, rock sugar.
[Steps]: First, decoct the cassia seeds and chrysanthemum flowers to make a juice, then cook the porridge with the juice, and add rock sugar according to taste.
[Effects]: Clears heat and brightens the eyes, detoxifies and nourishes the complexion, and moistens dryness.
Chrysanthemum tea as a Chinese herbal medicine
The flowering period of chrysanthemums is about 20 days. They generally bloom in a relatively concentrated way in early November. They should be harvested in batches, and the optimal harvest time is when 2/3 of the flower center (tubular florets) has opened. Fully opened flowers not only lose their fragrance but also tend to fall apart after processing, and their color is also poorer. At harvest, cut or snip off the branch bearing the flower from the fork, tie them into small bundles to facilitate drying in the shade, or directly snip off the flower heads. Process them immediately. Processing methods include shade drying, sun drying, and oven drying.
(1) Shade drying: In early November, when most of the flowers have entered the suitable harvest period, choose a sunny afternoon and cut them together with the flowering branches, completing the cutting in 2 to 3 rounds, and hang them on a prepared rack. (2) Raw sun drying: Place the harvested fresh flowers with branches on a rack to dry in the shade for 1 to 2 months, cut off the flowers, spray 2 to 4 kg of clean water per 100 kg to make them evenly moist, then fumigate with sulfur for about 8 hours, using 2 kg of sulfur per 100 kg of chrysanthemum flowers, which serves to disinfect and bleach them. After fumigation, air-dry them slightly and they are the finished product. Alternatively, after harvest, fumigate the fresh flowers with sulfur, fumigate
(3) Steaming and sun drying: Place the harvested fresh chrysanthemum flowers in a steamer (spread to a thickness of about 3 cm) and steam for 4 to 5 minutes, then take them out and put them on a bamboo curtain to sun-dry, without turning them. After 3 days of drying, they can be turned once; after 6 to 7 days of drying, pile them up to let the moisture redistribute for 1 to 2 days, then sun-dry again for 1 to 2 days. When the flower center has completely hardened, they are fully dry and can be the finished product. Hangzhou chrysanthemum is a steamed and sun-dried product.
(4) Baking: Place the fresh chrysanthemum flowers on a bamboo curtain in a drying room (or spread them on a drying sieve placed on a heated brick bed), with a thickness of 3 to 5 cm, and bake at a temperature of about 60°C. Turn them once when half dry, and when 90% dry, take them out and dry them slightly in the sun until fully dry, and they are the finished product. Gongju is a baked product. Among the above processing methods, the baking method is the best: it dries quickly, gives good quality, and has a high dry yield. Generally, 5 kg of fresh flowers can be processed into 1 kg of dry goods. The yield of dried chrysanthemum per mu is 100 to 150 kg.

Chrysanthemum, snow pear and milk soup
[Ingredients]500 mL milk, 4 white chrysanthemum flowers, 4 snow pears, 20 g ginkgo nuts. Appropriate amount of honey.
[Method]
1) Wash the white chrysanthemum flowers, pick off the petals and set aside; peel the snow pears, take the flesh and cut into pieces; remove the shells, skins and cores of the ginkgo nuts.
2) Put the ginkgo nuts and snow pear pieces into a clay pot, pour in an appropriate amount of clean water, bring to a boil over high heat, then turn to low heat and simmer until the ginkgo nuts are cooked.
3) Add the white chrysanthemum petals, bring the milk to a boil, turn off the heat and let it cool slightly, then add honey and mix well.
This soup should not be simmered at high temperature for a long time; this way the protein in the milk will not turn into a gel state, the nutritional value is higher, and it has a smooth mouthfeel.

The functions and uses of chrysanthemum: medicinal use
Chrysanthemum, in medicinal use, is the dried flower head of the Asteraceae plant chrysanthemum. It is a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine in China, with the effects of dispelling wind, clearing heat, brightening the eyes, and detoxifying. It mainly treats headaches, dizziness, red eyes, restlessness and heat in the chest, boils, swelling and toxic lesions, and other conditions. Modern pharmacological studies show that chrysanthemum has various pharmacological activities such as treating coronary heart disease, lowering blood pressure, preventing hyperlipidemia, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging effects. Chinese medicinal chrysanthemum has eight mainstream commercial sources on the market, namely Hangju, Boju, Gongju, Chuju, Qiju, Huaiju, Jiju, and Huangju, while Part I of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2000 edition), according to differences in producing areas and processing methods, includes four varieties: Boju, Chuju, Gongju, and Hangju. Chrysanthemum is a plant used both as medicine and food, and there are reports at home and abroad on its classification, identification, chemistry, clinical use, pharmacology, and other aspects. Here, only a summary is given of domestic and international research on the chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of chrysanthemum. Store in a cool, dry place, keep sealed, and protect from mold and insects.
Edible use
The main varieties include Layang, Xihuang, Xichibai, Guangzhou Hong, and others, with Guangdong as the main producing area. These edible chrysanthemums are mainly used as precious ingredients for banquet soups and hot pot, and are popular and sell well in Hong Kong, China and Macao, China. Chrysanthemum greens, meanwhile, are a vegetable loved by ordinary people in the Nanjing area of Jiangsu, usually used in soup or stir-fried, and have the effect of clearing heat and brightening the eyes.
Health care
Cosmos chrysanthemum not only has ornamental value but is also excellent as both medicine and food, with good health-care effects.
[Chrysanthemum wine]: Made by fermenting chrysanthemum with glutinous rice and yeast. It was called "longevity wine" in ancient times. Its taste is cool and sweet, and it has effects such as nourishing the liver, brightening the eyes, strengthening the brain, and delaying aging.
Contraindications
In the "List of Foods with Trace Fats" released by the World Health Organization at the end of 2008, tea fats were called the best trace fats in the world, and green tea, black tea, and oolong tea were all included, but chrysanthemum tea, which is well known to Chinese people and often drunk, was not included.
Harm
French small chrysanthemum is one of the top ten famous toxic ornamental flowers in the world. Improper consumption may cause symptoms such as diarrhea and vomiting. As a plant, chrysanthemum itself also has somewhat toxic leaves and other parts. Directly consuming its raw leaf stems or contacting them with the skin may cause symptoms such as itching, swelling and pain, and sore throat.

The cultural background of chrysanthemum: plant history
According to classic records, China has a history of cultivating chrysanthemums for more than 3,000 years. The earliest records are seen in the Zhou Guan and Bu Ya. The Book of Rites, Monthly Ordinances says: "In the month of late autumn, the chrysanthemum has yellow blossoms," which shows that chrysanthemum blooms in the autumn months, and at that time they were all wild species with yellow flowers. From the Zhou Dynasty to the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, there are records of chrysanthemum in the Book of Songs and Qu Yuan's Li Sao. Li Sao has the line "In the morning I drink the fallen dew of magnolia, in the evening I eat the fallen petals of autumn chrysanthemum." This shows that chrysanthemum and the culture of the Chinese nation formed an indissoluble bond long ago. In Xianyang, the capital of the Qin Dynasty, there once appeared a grand market for chrysanthemum exhibitions and sales, which shows how flourishing chrysanthemum cultivation was at that time.
The Han Dynasty Shennong Bencao Jing records: "Taken over a long time, chrysanthemum can lighten the body and prolong life." The Xijing Zaji says: "When the chrysanthemum blooms, also gather the stems and leaves, mix them with millet and brew them, and it will be ready on the ninth day of the ninth month of the following year, and then drink it, hence it is called chrysanthemum wine." "At that time, the empresses and concubines of the imperial palace all called it 'longevity wine,' regarded it as a tonic medicine, and gave it to one another. This custom remained popular until the Three Kingdoms period." "The people of Shu planted many chrysanthemums, because the sprouts could be used as vegetables and the flowers could be used as medicine. Gardens and fields were all planted with them, and in the countryside they burned and gathered wild chrysanthemums to supply medicine shops." From these records, it can be seen that the original purpose of chrysanthemum cultivation in China was for food and medicine.
Tao Yuanming of the Jin Dynasty (355-417) was so fond of chrysanthemums that it became widely known. He wrote many poems praising chrysanthemums, such as "Picking chrysanthemums by the eastern fence, I gaze leisurely at the southern mountains" and "Autumn chrysanthemums have fine color, and I gather their petals covered with dew," and other famous lines that are still widely recited today. At that time, high officials admired his noble character and also planted many chrysanthemums for their own enjoyment, praising chrysanthemums as "fragrance perfuming a hundred herbs, color surpassing all flowers."
Tao Hongjing of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (452-536) divided chrysanthemums into two types: "true chrysanthemum" and "kuyi." Those with purple stems, fragrant odor, and sweet taste, whose leaves can be used in soup, are true chrysanthemums; those that are blue-purple and large, have the odor of mugwort, and taste too bitter to eat are called kuyi, and are not true chrysanthemums. This was a further step in the understanding of chrysanthemums.
In the Tang Dynasty (618-907), chrysanthemum cultivation was already very common, and cultivation techniques were further improved, using grafting to propagate chrysanthemums; purple and white varieties also appeared. For example, Li Shangyin's poem says: "Dim and pale purple, harmonious and bright yellow." Bai Juyi's poem says: "The whole garden of chrysanthemums is richly golden yellow, among which one clump is colored like frost," and so on, which are clear evidence. At this time, chrysanthemums spread from China to Japan and won the admiration of the Japanese people. Afterward, they crossed chrysanthemums with several Japanese wild chrysanthemums, forming the Japanese cultivated chrysanthemum system.
In the Song Dynasty, chrysanthemum cultivation flourished even more. With the improvement of cultivation and selection techniques, the number of chrysanthemum varieties also increased greatly. This was an important period when chrysanthemums shifted from medicinal use to garden ornamentation. The chrysanthemum monographs of this period classified the cultivated varieties by flower color and also recorded flower shapes in greater detail. Liu Meng's Chrysanthemum Manual (1104) is the earliest monograph recording ornamental chrysanthemums, with 26 chrysanthemum varieties recorded. Fan Chengda's Chrysanthemum Manual (1018) records 35 varieties, among which "Hechan" and "Hong Erse" are the earliest records of quilled petals appearing. Later, green "Green Furong" and black "Mo Ju" also appeared among flower colors. In cultivation, further experience was gained in shaping and pinching chrysanthemums, maintenance and management, and using seed propagation to obtain new varieties. Zhifu Guangji Wuji records: "In the gardens of Lin'an, whenever the Double Ninth Festival came, each would display rare flowers to compete for superiority, and this was called opening a chrysanthemum fair." The Hangzhou Prefecture Gazetteer records: "Lin'an had a flower market, and at chrysanthemum time flower towers were made." It can be seen that in Lin'an, the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty, there were flower markets and flower fairs. The chrysanthemum exhibition that has been passed down to today began in Hangzhou in the Southern Song Dynasty. At the end of the Song Dynasty, Shi Zhu's Baiju Jipu records 131 chrysanthemum varieties.
In the Ming Dynasty, chrysanthemum cultivation techniques were further improved, chrysanthemum varieties increased again, and chrysanthemum manuals also became more numerous. For example, Huang Xingzeng, Ma Bozhou, Zhou Luchen, Gao Lian, Le Xiuyuan, and others all wrote works, including Juhua. In Huang Xingzeng's Chrysanthemum Manual, 220 chrysanthemum varieties are recorded. Li Shizhen's Bencao Gangmu (1580) and Wang Xiangjin's Qunfang Pu (1630) both contain many records of chrysanthemums. Qunfang Pu made a comprehensive study of chrysanthemum varieties, recording 92 yellow varieties, 73 white varieties, 32 purple varieties, 35 red varieties, 22 pink varieties, and 17 unusual varieties, totaling 6 categories and 271 varieties; with at least 16 flower types.
In the Qing Dynasty, there were even more monographs on chrysanthemums, including Chen Haozi's Huajing, Liu Hao's Guang Qunfang Pu, Xu Zhaoxiong's Dongli Zhongzheng, Lu Yancan's Yiju Zhi, Min Yankai's Yangju Fa, Xu Jing's Yiju Jianyi, Yan Lu's Yiju Xuzhi, Ji Nan's Jushuo, Chen Moushan's Yiju Suoyan, Wu Yiyi's Xuyuan Qiuhua Pu, and so on. The book Huajing records that at that time there were 54 yellow chrysanthemum varieties, 32 white varieties, 41 red varieties, and 27 purple varieties, totaling 154 varieties. Ji Nan's Jushuo contains 233 chrysanthemum varieties, among which more than 100 were newly bred, and it also proposed methods for chrysanthemum breeding. In the Qing Dynasty, chrysanthemum varieties increased day by day. During the Qianlong period, some people even presented rare chrysanthemums of various colors to the Qing emperor, and Qianlong once summoned the flower painter Zou Yizhu to the palace to paint them and bound the paintings into volumes. Among literati, painting chrysanthemums and inscribing poems also became a common practice. The introduction of Chinese chrysanthemums to Europe began around the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. In 1688, Dutch merchants introduced chrysanthemums from China to Europe for cultivation. In 1689, the Dutch writer Brini wrote a book titled The Great Oriental Famous Flower: Chrysanthemum. In the mid-18th century, Louis Biltard of France brought large-flowered Chinese chrysanthemum varieties to France. In the 19th century, the British botanist Fortune introduced chrysanthemum species from Zhoushan Islands in Zhejiang Province, China and from Japan successively, and carried out cross-breeding, thus forming the various color types of British chrysanthemums. Not long after, they were transmitted from Britain to the United States. From then on, this famous flower was planted all over the world. Chinese cultivated chrysanthemums thus became an important parent of today's Western chrysanthemums.
Since the Republic of China period, large numbers of chrysanthemum varieties were lost and scattered, and there are no formal documents to verify them. After liberation, with the development of horticulture, chrysanthemums also went through a tortuous course and have increasingly developed and grown stronger. The history of chrysanthemum cultivation is part of the development of Chinese flower horticulture. In recent years, on the basis of inheriting the experience of predecessors, cultivation techniques have been improved, and new technologies such as cross-breeding, radiation mutation, and tissue culture have been adopted, which has not only improved the production quality of chrysanthemums but also sharply increased the number of varieties. According to incomplete statistics, there are already more than 7,000 varieties. A single large chrysanthemum plant can bloom more than 5,000 flowers. The development of desk chrysanthemums and bonsai chrysanthemums has further enhanced the ornamental value of chrysanthemums. Some provinces (municipalities) have also selected chrysanthemum as their provincial (municipal) flower, such as Beijing. National academic seminars have been held one after another, or chrysanthemum associations have been established, chrysanthemum books and periodicals have been published, and chrysanthemum exhibitions have been held every year, greatly popularizing chrysanthemum knowledge and exchanging the experience of cultivating chrysanthemums, opening broad prospects for the cultivation and application of chrysanthemums in China.
Related poems
Jin Dynasty, Tao Yuanming, "Harmonizing with Guo Zhubu":
Fragrant chrysanthemums bloom and shine in the woods, green pines crown the cliff in rows. Cherishing this steadfast and elegant posture, they stand out as heroes beneath the frost.
Dynasty unknown, Chen Zhisui, "Autumn Chrysanthemum"
At the bottom of the valley beneath the peach shade, by the cliff edge grows a clump.
Its flowers bloom when cold dew comes, and indeed do not rely on the east wind.
Tang Dynasty, Huang Chao, "Ode to Chrysanthemum"
Wait until autumn comes on the eighth day of the ninth month, after my flowers bloom, all other flowers die. The surging fragrance pierces through Chang'an, and the whole city is clad in golden armor.
Tang Dynasty, Emperor Taizong, "Composed on the Remaining Chrysanthemums":
The orchids by the steps congeal in the summer frost, the chrysanthemums by the shore shine in the morning light. The dew is thick, as if smiling at dawn; the wind is strong, bearing a faint lingering fragrance.
Fine leaves push out light green, round flowers cluster in tender yellow. Still holding this year's color, they again form next year's fragrance.
Tang Dynasty, Du Fu, "Yun'an Ninth Day":
The cold flowers have all finished blooming, only chrysanthemum buds fill the branches. Those who picked them before are often different people now; the light fragrance follows the wine for a while.
Tang Dynasty, Bai Juyi, "Ode to Chrysanthemum":
In one night new frost falls lightly on the tiles, the banana is newly broken and the withered lotus topples. Only the chrysanthemum by the eastern fence endures the cold; its golden grains have just opened and are clearer at dawn.
Tang Dynasty, Yuan Zhen, "Chrysanthemum"
Autumn clumps surround the house like Tao's home, and all around the fence edge the sun gradually slants. It is not that among flowers I especially favor chrysanthemums, but after this flower blooms there are no more flowers.
Tang Dynasty, Wu Lulei, "Chrysanthemum"
Bright and brilliant golden skirt, gracefully upright white jade skin. I well know the times and tastes differ, yet it seems to share the cold of the year. I truly cannot bear to let it fall to the ground; holding the branch, it would rather wither itself.
Tang Dynasty, Li Shangyin, "Chrysanthemum":
Dim and pale purple, harmonious and bright yellow. The color by Tao Ling's fence, the fragrance in Luo Han's house.
When will it be forbidden to bear heavy dew? In truth it fears the setting sun. I wish it might float in the golden parrot cup and rise into your white jade hall.
Song Dynasty, Su Shi, "Zhao Chang's Cold Chrysanthemum":
With light flesh and weak bones it spreads secluded blossoms, and further turns its golden stamens into flowing sunset glow.
If you want to know the medicine that prevents aging and prolongs life, it is that which begins to bloom only when all other plants are destroyed.
Song Dynasty, Fan Chengda, "Chrysanthemum after the Double Ninth Festival":
Lonely by the eastern fence wet with dew's splendor, still as before its golden house shines on mud and sand. People in the world, how many women lack lofty refinement, only looking at the flower of one day at the Double Ninth.
Song Dynasty, Lu You, "Picking Chrysanthemum on the Twelfth Day of the Ninth Month":
The yellow flowers are fragrant and surpass the world in wonder, on the Double Ninth people wrongly pair them with dogwood sprigs. Blooming late, it all the more shows its frost-defying conduct; it is laughable that children say it is out of season.
Song Dynasty, Mei Yaochen, "Remaining Chrysanthemum":
Scattered golden stamens, though withered they do not change their fragrance. In the deep clump hides a solitary beauty, still able to fill the clear wine cup.
Song Dynasty, Zhu Shuzhen, "Chrysanthemum":
The earth flower can be white and can also be red, in late season it can still be loved for this craft. It would rather hold its fragrance and grow old on the branch, not follow yellow leaves dancing in the autumn wind.
Hu Bingyan, "Autumn Chrysanthemum"
With a thousand postures and a hundred appearances, beautiful as Ajiao, in strong wind and cold it fully displays its splendor. Adorning the late autumn scenery as it blooms, its hidden fragrance draws weary butterflies to linger.
Contemporary, Zuo Heshui, "Viewing Chrysanthemums on Shangjing Mountain in Xingzi County"
In Yuanming's hometown, wild chrysanthemum clumps, alone by the sparse fence, full of flavor. Willingly it grows old on the branch facing wind and frost, refusing to follow withered leaves in the whirlwind.
Contemporary, Yu Yafei, "Wild Chrysanthemum"
On field edges, riverbanks, and hillsides, wild chrysanthemums grow in clumps with yellow flowers; in the cold autumn season, they bloom proudly against the frost and give off a clear fragrance.

The flower language of chrysanthemum
Symbolic meanings of chrysanthemum: purity, noble purity, remembrance, success, longevity.
Chrysanthemum flower language: purity, noble purity, I love you, true feelings.
Flower language of various chrysanthemums
Red chrysanthemum: I love
White chrysanthemum: truth
Yellow chrysanthemum: neglected love
Aster: remembrance, reliable love, please believe me
Spring chrysanthemum: divination for love
June chrysanthemum: parting
Winter chrysanthemum: parting
French small chrysanthemum: endurance
Cineraria: happiness
Cosmos: wild beauty
Cosmos: maidenly pure affection
Marigold: friendship
Cornflower: delicate, elegant
Strawflower: eternal memory, engraved in the heart
Scaly chrysanthemum: eternal love
Yellow chrysanthemum: rising to prominence
White chrysanthemum: mourning, genuine frankness
Red chrysanthemum: I love you
Aster: remembrance, reliable love, please believe me
Spring chrysanthemum: divination for love
Winter chrysanthemum: parting
Gaillardia: unity
Marigold: friendship
Calendula: sorrow and jealousy
Wealth chrysanthemum: wealth and honor, flourishing prosperity
Cornflower: delicate, elegant, the happiness of being single
Strawflower: eternal memory, engraved in the heart
Scaly chrysanthemum: eternal love
Cineraria: happiness
June chrysanthemum: parting
Sun chrysanthemum: passion, vitality
Cosmos: wild beauty
Cosmos: maidenly pure affection
French small chrysanthemum: endurance
Blue water chrysanthemum: fickle, stubborn and heartless you
Daisy (Bellis perennis): joy, happiness, purity, innocence, peace, hope, beauty
African daisy (Gerbera): mystery, excitement, perseverance, strong adaptability
Red geranium: you linger in my mind
Pink geranium: very glad to be able to stay by your side
Chrysanthemum pictures

Detailed Guide to the Cultivation Management and Care Techniques of the 'Shuaiqi' Chrysanthemum

Cultivation, Growing and Uses of the Chrysanthemum

Chrysanthemum Dendranthema morifolium (Ramat.) Tzvel. Chrysanthemum Illustrated Guide: How to Grow Chrysanthemums / How to Propagate Chrysanthemums

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