I. Overview

Coffee, along with cocoa and tea, is known as one of the world's three major beverages, and it ranks first in production, consumption and output value. Besides being used as a beverage, coffee can also be used to extract caffeine and coffee oil; in medicine it can be used as an anesthetic, a stimulant, a diuretic and a cardiac stimulant. Coffee pulp can be used to make wine, brew vinegar, extract pectin and produce molasses; dried pulp can be used as livestock feed; dried husks can be used as fertilizer, fuel and to make hard fiberboard; the flowers contain essential oils from which fine fragrances can be extracted.
Coffee is a tropical cash crop that is relatively easy to cultivate, with low management costs, early returns and high output value. It can be harvested in the year after planting, and with good management it can be harvested for 20~30 years. Our country has superior natural conditions for developing coffee production; Yunnan, Hainan and Guangdong all have fairly large areas of land suitable for planting, as well as abundant labor. In recent years, with the improvement of people's living standards and the development of opening-up and tourism, coffee consumption in our country has gradually increased.
Domestic production is no longer sufficient to supply market demand, and imports are still needed every year. Therefore, developing coffee production is of great significance for meeting the growing needs of people's lives and domestic demand, saving foreign exchange, and supporting national construction.
Coffee was first introduced into Taiwan, China in 1884; in 1908 overseas Chinese brought large-seeded and medium-seeded varieties back from Malaysia and planted them on Hainan Island. Between 1912 and 1935, overseas Chinese again brought coffee back from Malaysia, Indonesia and other places in batches to Hainan Island for trial planting. After Liberation, coffee production developed considerably. In the early 1960s, the coffee planting area on Hainan once reached 40,000 mu, but later, for various reasons, most of it was abandoned. In 1987 coffee production developed rapidly, and the total area once reached more than 230,000 mu, but in recent years coffee prices have been low, planted fields were left unmanaged, and by 1993 only 55,700 mu remained, with an output of 889 tons of dry beans.


II. Biological Habits

(1) Botanical Characteristics
(2) Growth and Flowering Habits
(3) Requirements for Environmental Conditions

(1) Botanical Characteristics

1. Roots
The coffee root is a conical root system, and its form, distribution and depth vary with agricultural technical measures, soil conditions and variety. Under normal conditions, there is a thick but short taproot and many well-developed lateral roots.
According to observations on Hainan Island, for 3~4-year-old bearing medium-seeded coffee trees, the taproot is generally about 60 cm deep, and most absorbing roots are distributed within the 30 cm soil layer, especially mostly within the top 15 cm layer; a small portion is distributed within the 30~60 cm soil layer, and a few absorbing roots are distributed within the 60~90 cm soil layer. The absorbing roots in the surface soil layer are thick and white, while in the soil layer below 30 cm they are yellow and weak. When the taproot extends below 60 cm, it often becomes slender and extends downward in the form of absorbing roots. The horizontal distribution of the coffee root system generally extends 15~20 cm beyond the outer edge of the canopy.

2. Stem
The coffee stem, also called the trunk, develops from an orthotropic branch. The stem is upright; young stems are slightly square and green, and after becoming suberized they become round and brown. The internodes of the stem are about 4~7 cm long, and internode length is greatly affected by the environment; under excessively shaded conditions, internodes can reach more than 20 cm. Each node bears a pair of leaves, and in the leaf axils there are upper buds and lower buds. The upper buds develop into primary branches, and the lower buds develop into orthotropic branches, which can be trained into the trunk (stem). In the same leaf axil, the upper bud generally sprouts only once, but the lower bud can sprout multiple times.

3. Leaves
Leaves are simple and opposite, and occasionally 3 leaves are whorled; they are green, leathery and glossy, and elliptical to oblong. Leaf size varies with variety: small-seeded varieties have the smallest leaves, about 12~16*5~7 cm; medium-seeded varieties have the largest leaves, about 20~24*8~10 cm; large-seeded varieties have leaves about 17~12~16*5~7 cm, 20*6~8 cm. Different varieties and strains also differ in leaf margin shape: medium-seeded varieties mostly have wavy leaf margins, small-seeded varieties have smaller margin waves, and large-seeded varieties have no waves or inconspicuous waves at the leaf margins.

4. Flowers
Several to several dozen flowers are clustered in the leaf axils, with the 2nd~5th flowers borne on one floral axis. The flowers are white and fragrant. Medium- and small-seeded varieties generally have 5 petals, while large-seeded varieties have 7~8 petals. The flower is tubular and cylindrical. The number of stamens is mostly the same as the number of petals; the stigma of the stamens is two-lobed, and the ovary is inferior, generally 2-loculed, though sometimes 1- or 3-loculed. It is an insect-pollinated flower; large-seeded and small-seeded varieties can self-pollinate, while medium-seeded varieties are cross-pollinated.

5. Fruit
The fruit is a drupe, usually containing 2 seeds, though there are also single-seeded and 3-seeded fruits. The coffee fruit can be divided into the following parts:
(1) Exocarp, a thin leathery layer, green before maturity, light green when nearly mature, and bright red or purplish red when fully mature.
(2) Mesocarp, that is, the pulp, a layer of mucilaginous material with a sweet taste and intermixed fibers.
(3) Endocarp, also called the parchment shell, a horny shell composed of stone cells.
(4) The kernel includes the seed coat (silver skin), endosperm, cotyledons, embryo stem and other parts.


(2) Growth and Flowering Habits

1. Growth of the trunk and formation of the canopy

The coffee tree shows an obvious phenomenon of apical dominance, and the branches at the top of the tree grow vigorously. However, this apical dominance weakens as the trunk grows taller year by year. Generally by the 4th year, upward growth of the trunk begins to slow, while orthotropic branches sprout from the middle and lower parts of the plant.

When coffee seedlings have grown 9~12 pairs of true leaves (small-seeded varieties 6~9 pairs of true leaves), they begin to grow the first pair of branches. In the year of planting, because the root system is not yet well developed, generally only 4~6 pairs of branches grow. In the second year the growth increment begins to increase, generally producing 7~12 pairs of branches. In the third year the growth increment is greatest, averaging 14~15 pairs of branches; with good management, 16~18 branches can be produced; at this time a small number of secondary branches also emerge from the lower layers, the canopy begins to form, and a small amount of fruit is set. In the fourth year it enters the fruiting stage, after which trunk growth gradually slows. Under natural growth conditions, medium-seeded coffee can reach 6~8 m tall, small-seeded coffee 4~6 m tall, and large-seeded coffee more than 10 m tall.

The growth of the coffee trunk shows a relatively obvious phenomenon of apical dominance. In the leaf axils of the trunk there are two kinds of buds, upper and lower. The upper buds develop into horizontal lateral branches called primary branches; branches produced on primary branches are called secondary branches; branches produced on secondary branches are called tertiary branches; and branches that grow irregularly from primary and secondary branches are called secondary shoots.

The growth habits of coffee branches often vary with variety and environmental conditions. For medium-seeded coffee, primary branches are the main fruiting branches, while secondary and tertiary branches are produced less, and even if produced they bear little fruit; therefore, multi-stem training should be adopted. For small-seeded coffee, in addition to primary branches, secondary and tertiary branches are also good fruiting branches. In cool, mild high-altitude areas, the trunk grows thick and strong, internodes are short, and secondary and tertiary branches grow luxuriantly and bear well, so single-stem training should be adopted to make full use of secondary and tertiary branches for fruiting. However, in hot, rainy low-altitude areas, the trunk grows rapidly and secondary and tertiary branches are seldom produced, so multi-stem training should be adopted.

2. Flowering habits

Coffee flowers are borne in the leaf axils. Flower buds can form in the leaf axils of both branches and the trunk, but mainly on the branches. The formation of coffee flower buds is closely related to the internal nutrients of the branches and the environment. In medium-seeded varieties, flower buds begin to develop in late July, while in small-seeded varieties flower buds begin to develop in October~November. Flower buds can also form on branches of the current year.

The coffee flowering period varies with variety and environment. In Hainan Island, medium-seeded varieties flower successively from November to June of the following year, with peak flowering from February to April. Small-seeded varieties have peak flowering from March to May.

When coffee flower buds develop to the final stage, a certain amount of humidity and temperature is required for them to open. If drought or a low-temperature period occurs, the flower buds cannot open, or they open as star-shaped flowers. Flowers intermediate between normal flowers and star-shaped flowers are called near-normal flowers. Star-shaped flowers have small, pointed, hard petals, no fragrance, and are yellow or light red, with very low or no seed-setting rate. Near-normal flowers can set seed, but the seed-setting rate is lower than that of normal flowers.

During the flowering period, if drought occurs, irrigation can increase normal flowers and reduce star-shaped flowers.

The flowers of medium- and small-seeded coffee generally begin to open at 3~5 in the morning and are in full bloom at 5~7. When the temperature is below 10.C, the flower buds can open; when the temperature is above 13.C, the flower buds cannot open normally.

3. Fruiting habits

Weather has a great influence on coffee seed setting, especially weather changes within 2 days after flowering. Sunny or cloudy weather, still air and high air humidity after flowering are favorable for seed setting. If drought, northwest winds or continuous heavy rain occur after flowering, seed setting is unfavorable.

Coffee fruits develop relatively slowly in the early stage. In medium-seeded varieties, fruit growth is fastest 4~6 months after flowering; in small-seeded varieties, fruit growth is fastest 2~3 months after flowering. During the development of coffee fruits, fruit drop and dried fruits occur. Apart from being affected by weather, this is mainly influenced by the nutrient status within the plant. Therefore, strengthening fertilizer management and improving the nutrient status within the plant can reduce fruit drop and dried fruits and increase yield.

The time required for fruit to mature from flowering is 8~10 months for small-seeded coffee, maturing in September~November of the same year, with the peak ripening period in September~October; medium-seeded coffee requires 10~12 months, maturing from November of the same year to May of the following year, with the peak ripening period in February~March.


(3) Requirements for Environmental Conditions

Coffee originated in tropical Africa. The original habitat of small-seeded coffee is the tropical plateau region of Ethiopia, at an altitude of 900~1800 m, with an annual average temperature of 19.C; medium-seeded coffee originated in the tropical rainforest region of Congo, below 900 m altitude, with an annual average temperature of 21~26.C. Their places of origin are all shaded or semi-shaded forests and river valley areas; therefore, coffee has developed a need for still air, cool and mild, and humid environmental conditions.

1. Different coffee varieties have different temperature requirements. Small-seeded varieties need a cooler and milder climate, requiring an annual average temperature of 19~21.C. When the monthly average temperature drops to 12.7.C, plant growth slows. When the daily absolute minimum temperature of 4.5.C lasts for one hour, newly sprouted terminal buds and young leaves are damaged. At -1.C, frost forms on the leaf surface; after the temperature rises, water-soaked patches appear on the underside of the leaves. Mildly affected plants can recover, while severely affected plants lose many leaves, branches dry up, and the normal differentiation and development of flower buds are also affected, causing a sharp drop in yield. Medium-seeded coffee needs a higher temperature, with an annual average temperature preferably between 23~25.C. The night temperature most suitable for flower bud development is 20~21.C, and the temperature most suitable for flowering is 17~20.C. Below 10.C, flowering and pollination are unfavorable. If the temperature drops to 2.C, leaves show symptoms of cold damage.

2. Rainfall
The rainfall in the world's coffee-producing regions is generally between 1000~1800 mm, with some as low as 760 mm and some as high as 2500 mm (see Table 7). An annual rainfall above 1250 mm with even distribution is most suitable for coffee growth and development. If the dry season is too long, growth will be inhibited, flower bud development will be unfavorable, abnormal flowers will increase, and the seed-setting rate will decrease. If there is too much rain, it easily causes excessive vegetative growth of shoots and reduces flowering and fruiting. The Lujiang Farm in Yunnan Province has an annual rainfall of only 700 mm and a dry period as long as 8 months, but under irrigated conditions coffee still grows well.

3. Light
Coffee is a semi-shade crop. Under full sunlight, coffee growth is inhibited, and if water and fertilizer are insufficient, premature aging and death may occur. If shade is too heavy, it leads to excessive vegetative growth, excessive shoot growth, and reduced flowering and fruiting. Coffee's light requirements differ with variety, developmental stage, soil fertility and moisture conditions. Large-seeded varieties are the most light-tolerant, and small-seeded varieties are more light-tolerant than medium-seeded varieties. Under fertile soil and irrigated conditions, shade can be reduced, or no shade may be needed; conversely, if coffee is planted in poor soil and hot, dry areas, shade should be appropriately increased. Generally, the suitable shade levels are roughly: 60~70% at the seedling stage, about 40~50% after planting until fruiting, and about 20~40% during the full production period.

4. Wind
Coffee needs an environment with still air. Typhoons and dry winds are both unfavorable to coffee growth. When a typhoon reaches force 10 or above, leaves and fruits are blown off in large numbers, and some trunk branches are broken; after the typhoon, the bark at the junction of the coffee root and stem is worn away, causing pathogens to invade and resulting in large numbers of deaths after the wind. Dry winds are extremely unfavorable to coffee flowering and seed setting.

5. Soil
Coffee has a well-developed root system and grows especially well in fertile, loose forest soil. Fertile sandy loam or red loam is suitable for planting coffee, while clay with good drainage is unfavorable for coffee root growth. When the pH value in the soil is below 4.5, root development is poor.


III. Cultivated Varieties

(1) Small-seeded variety
(2) Large-seeded variety

Coffee belongs to the family Rubiaceae and the genus Coffea, a perennial evergreen shrub or small tree, with about 90 species. Those currently cultivated in Hainan are the small-seeded variety (Arabica), medium-seeded variety (Canephora), and large-seeded variety (Liberica).

(1) Small-seeded variety:
Also called the Arabica variety, originating in Ethiopia, it is an evergreen shrub. The plant is relatively small, 4~5 m tall; branches are slender, and the branches and trunk become suberized earlier. Leaves are small and pointed, oblong, harder than those of medium-seeded varieties, with fine but obvious waves along the leaf margin. The fruit is relatively small; the ratio of fresh fruit to dry beans is 4.5~5:1. The outer skin of the seed is relatively thick and tough, and the seed coat is relatively thick and easily separates from the kernel. The seeds are relatively small, with about 1700~2600 coffee beans per jin. Each node bears relatively few fruits, about 12~15, but the branches bear a greater number of fruits, so under good management the yield is not lower than that of medium-seeded varieties. The coffee powder has a mellow aroma and good drinking quality. The plant is wind-resistant and more drought-tolerant than medium-seeded varieties; its cold resistance is the weakest, but it is rarely infected by rust disease, has a relatively high yield, and has a strong flavor and strong stimulation. Among the famous varieties are: Romansta, Quillou, Uganda, and the Indonesian clones BP38, BP42, East Java high-yield varieties Bgn300, Bgn124, etc.
In recent years, the Spice and Beverage Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences has selected 8 high-yield superior clones from medium-seeded seedling trees. After years of trials, they have been proven to yield 3~4 times more than existing seedling trees, with a dry bean yield of 150~200 kg per mu, and can be promoted for planting in Hainan Province.

(3) Large-seeded variety:
Also called the Liberica variety, it is an evergreen tree. The plant is tall, reaching more than 10 m; branches are thick and hard, growing diagonally upward, and the branches become suberized the fastest. Leaves are elliptical or round, leathery and glossy, with a pointed leaf tip and no waves along the margin. The fruit is large and oblong, with hard and thick skin and pulp, and a large protruding navel. The ratio of fresh fruit to dry beans is about 7~10:1. The seed shell is relatively thick, hard and tough; the seed coat fits tightly against the kernel; the beans are large, with about 1300 dry beans per jin. Ripe fruit is vermilion. The branches bear relatively few fruits, with about 5~6 fruits per node. This species has a deep taproot, is relatively drought-tolerant, has medium wind and cold resistance, is light-tolerant, and is most susceptible to rust disease. Yield per plant is high, but yield per unit area is low. The flavor is strong and the stimulation is strong.
The main variety is the Excelsa variety (also called the Charrier variety), introduced from Guangxi to Hainan for planting in the 1970s. It grows vigorously, and the fruit somewhat resembles that of the medium-seeded variety, but the seed coat is thick and hard like that of the small-seeded variety; the fresh-to-dry ratio is 5~8:1, and the quality has a strong flavor with a slight bitterness. The root is deep, and drought and cold tolerance are relatively strong; it is resistant to leaf rust and longhorn beetles.


IV. Cultivation Techniques

(1) Propagation of seedlings
(2) Establishment of coffee plantations

(1) Propagation of seedlings

Coffee seedling propagation can be divided into seed propagation and vegetative propagation.

1. Seed propagation

(1) Seed collection, washing and seed storage
During the peak ripening period of coffee (the peak ripening period of medium-seeded coffee on Hainan Island is February~March, and for small-seeded coffee September~November), pick fully mature fruits from robust, high-yielding mother trees for seed. After the fruits are picked, immediately peel and wash the seeds. The method is to place the fruits on a hard, rough ground surface and rub off the fruit skin with a brick, or use a peeling machine to remove the fruit skin, then place them in water to remove the fruit skin, take out the seeds, add stove ash and stir, then rinse in water and wash the gelatinous material off the seed surface. During seed washing, be careful not to crush the seed shell, so as not to affect germination. Seeds without the seed shell have a germination rate of only 54%, while those retaining the seed shell can reach more than 80%. After washing, place the seeds in a ventilated place to dry in the shade; they must not be exposed to the sun. When seeds are sun-dried to a moisture content of 15%, the germination rate decreases significantly. Dried seeds should not be stored for long. For medium-seeded coffee, if storage exceeds three months, germination ability is lost. For small-seeded coffee, the seed harvest period is September~November; after seed collection comes the low-temperature winter, and the seeds can be stored until February~March of the following year for sowing, but they should be placed in a ventilated, cool and dry place and checked frequently to prevent mold.
① Selection of nursery site: It is advisable to choose loam or sandy loam close to a water source, with good drainage, fertile, deep soil and loose texture as the nursery site.
② Land preparation and application of base fertilizer: The nursery soil should be fully plowed and harrowed until fine and crumbly, with deep plowing of 20~25 cm, and stones, grass roots and debris removed. Then beds are made, with a bed width of 1 m and a path between beds 50 cm wide. On flat land, the beds should run east-west. Apply 5000~10000 jin [of base fertilizer] and 50~100 jin of superphosphate per mu. The fertilizer must be fully decomposed and mixed evenly with the soil.
③ Erecting shade frames: Coffee seedlings are not tolerant of strong light, so shade frames must be erected. There are two types of shade frames, large and small. Large shade frames are 180~200 cm high, and the area can range from several fen to several mu. Small shade frames are 80~100 cm high, with one covering each bed. Large shade frames are convenient to manage and provide even light transmission, but materials are difficult to obtain. Shade netting can also be used. Small shade frames are less convenient to manage, and the seedlings receive uneven light, but the materials are easier to obtain. For these two kinds of shade frames, each locality can erect them according to local conditions. If raising seedlings in plastic bags, it is best to use large shade frames, which can make full use of the land.
④ Sowing and germination acceleration: Coffee seeds take a relatively long time from sowing to emergence. If sown directly, it requires much labor, germination is uneven, and growth is irregular. It is best to use the method of germination acceleration followed by transplanting, that is, sow the seeds densely in a sand bed, and transplant them to the nursery before the seedlings produce true leaves. The specific method is as follows: after preparing the land and making beds, spread fine sand about 1 cun thick on the bed surface to make a sand bed. The sand bed must be covered with a shade frame to maintain 80~90% shade. Then evenly broadcast the seeds on the sand bed. The sowing rate is about 1 jin of seeds per 1.5 sq m, with seeds about 1 cm apart. Press the seeds slightly with a board so that the seeds are in full contact with the sand, then cover with another layer of sand, with a thickness such that the seeds are no longer visible, then cover with a thin layer of grass and water thoroughly. Thereafter, water once a day to keep moist. After 40~60 days, the seedlings can emerge. When a few seedlings emerge, the covering must be removed so that the seedlings can emerge and grow.——-
⑤ Transplanting seedlings: Transplanting standard: after the seeds emerge, it is best to transplant when the cotyledons have flattened out and before true leaves have grown, because at this time the seedlings have begun to produce the 1st~2nd rounds of lateral roots, and growth recovers relatively quickly after transplanting. Before transplanting, water the sand bed thoroughly first. When lifting the seedlings, protect the root system as much as possible; seedlings should be lifted and planted promptly. Also pay attention to keeping the seedling root system moist. Spacing is determined by variety and seedling age. For small-seeded coffee, a spacing of 20×20 cm can be used. For medium-seeded coffee, a spacing of 20×20 cm can be used for seedlings used the same year, and 25×25 cm or 25×30 cm for seedlings used the following year. When transplanting, the taproot must not be bent; an overly long taproot can be appropriately shortened. When backfilling soil, press firmly in layers so that the root system is in full contact with the soil. After transplanting, water thoroughly to settle the roots.
If raising seedlings in plastic bags, arrange 2~3 plants per row, leaving a 25~30 cm wide path between rows to facilitate watering and give the seedlings enough space to grow without becoming leggy. Specifications for seedling bags: 14×22 or 15×24 cm; bags for seedlings used the same year can be smaller, and bags for seedlings used the following year can be larger. The nutrient soil for seedling bags can follow the standard for fertilizing transplanting bed soil, combined with a certain amount of organic fertilizer and superphosphate.
Points to note when transplanting seedlings: --Plant separately after grading by size.
--The transplanting depth should be the same as the original depth in the germination bed, not too deep, so as not to affect seedling growth.
--Do not bend the taproot.
--After transplanting, water thoroughly to settle the roots.
⑥ Nursery management: Watering and fertilizing: Sufficient water and fertilizer are the key to ensuring rapid seedling growth. After transplanting, water once a day to keep the soil moist. After true leaves emerge, the frequency of watering can be reduced according to soil moisture conditions. At the same time, carry out the first fertilization, and thereafter fertilize once every 10~15 days. The fertilizer can be fully decomposed liquid manure made by composting pigpen manure and green manure. At the seedling stage, the fertilizer concentration must not be too high; as the seedlings grow, the concentration can gradually be increased. When applying chemical fertilizers, they can be dissolved in water and applied, but the appropriate concentration must be controlled, and chemical fertilizers must not touch the leaves. If applying chemical fertilizers dry, special attention must be paid. One month before planting out, watering and fertilization should be stopped, and the shade should be removed at the same time to harden the seedlings.
--Weeding and loosening the soil: Because of frequent watering and fertilizing, the soil tends to become compacted and weeds are plentiful, so constant attention must be paid to weeding and loosening the soil. -----Mulching: Where conditions permit, dead mulch is best. It can keep the soil moist, prevent compaction, and reduce the work of loosening soil and weeding; after the mulch decomposes, it is also a good organic fertilizer.
--Regulating shade: The light requirement of seedlings increases as the seedlings grow. Before 3 pairs of true leaves have emerged, shade should be controlled at 70~80%; at 3~6 pairs of true leaves, shade can be reduced to 50~60%; when the first pair of branches grows or before planting out, shade can be reduced to 20~30%, so that the seedlings are hardened before planting out.

2. Vegetative propagation

Medium-seeded coffee is a cross-pollinated crop, and seedling progeny vary greatly. Within the same plantation, yield variation among different individual plants is very significant. Therefore, using vegetative propagation to cultivate seedlings from superior mother trees can increase progeny yield, maintain fruiting capacity, and ensure uniformity in the quality of coffee fruit and coffee beans, so that superior varieties do not degenerate. Most coffee-producing countries in the world have adopted vegetative propagation methods, mainly for medium-seeded varieties.
Vegetative propagation can be divided into cuttings and budding.
(1) Propagation by cuttings
① Establishment of multiplication nurseries Coffee vegetative propagation requires large quantities of orthotropic branches and bud patches as material for cuttings and budding. In order to speed up propagation, multiplication nurseries are established. The planting density of the multiplication nursery is 1.5 m×1 m, with different clones planted in separate rows.
② Preparation of cutting material Use orthotropic branches for cutting material, not primary branches, because new plants grown from primary branch cuttings can only grow prostrate and cannot become upright coffee trees.
Cuttings should use the 2nd~3rd segments below the healthy orthotropic terminal bud that are green, not yet suberized, and with fully mature leaves. Semi-suberized and already suberized orthotropic branches should not be used. Leave the leaf on the cutting about four fingers wide (about 6~8 cm); each cutting segment is 4~6 cm long. Split the cutting longitudinally into two strips, each with one leaf, and make a smooth slanted cut.
③ Preparation of the cutting bed The cutting bed is generally a sand bed, 40~50 cm thick, with coarse sand in the lower part and medium-fine sand in the upper part. The cutting bed should have 80~90% shade. Before use, wash the sand first, or mix in 1/2 coconut husk. With misting equipment, the rooting rate of cuttings is high, but the equipment purchase cost is high.
④ Cutting method Cuttings can be inserted obliquely or vertically; the insertion depth should reach the leaf node. Space them 10~15 cm apart in a row, with the standard being that the leaves do not shade one another. After insertion, water thoroughly so that the cuttings are in close contact with the sand. After cutting, cover the cutting bed with plastic film to reduce water evaporation and increase the rooting rate of cuttings. When covering with plastic film, bend iron wire or bamboo strips into arches, insert them at the edge of the sand bed, then cover with plastic film and press it down tightly to maintain humidity in the bed. If misting equipment is used, plastic film covering is not necessary.
⑤ Management after cutting Mainly watering and disease prevention; it is required to maintain relatively high air humidity and relatively low temperature in the cutting bed. Do not water too much, so as to avoid rotting of cuttings or disease occurrence. To prevent disease, spray 1:1000 carbendazim immediately after cutting, and if disease occurs later, spray 1~2 more times.
⑥ Transplanting rooted cuttings About 60 days after cuttings are inserted, new roots grow to 3~4 cm. Although transplanting at this time is relatively convenient, it is best to transplant when the cutting root system has grown the second round of lateral roots (about 90 days after cutting), for a high survival rate. Operate carefully when transplanting, because the root system is very fragile and easily broken.
Cuttings that have not yet rooted remain in the sand bed, and are transplanted again after rooting. The management of transplanted or bagged cutting seedlings is the same as that of seed seedlings. When 5~7 pairs of leaves have been cultivated in the nursery, the first pair of branches will grow, and at this time they can be released from the nursery for planting out.
(2) Grafting Grafting methods can use budding and cleft grafting.
① Budding method Use one-year-old seedlings, wipe the soil clean from the base of the stem, then open a budding site 2.5~3.5 cm long. From a superior mother tree or multiplication nursery, select plump, well-developed nodes and cut off a bud patch with a small amount of xylem, place it into the budding site, and tie it tightly with tying tape. After 20 days, open the bud point; after 30~40 days, when the budding interface has healed, remove all ties. After 5 days, surviving seedlings can have the rootstock cut off, and those that did not survive should be budded again.
② Cleft grafting method Use one-year-old seedlings as rootstock. For cleft grafting, cut the rootstock off 10~15 cm above the ground, make a vertical cut 3~5 cm long in the middle of the cut surface, select an orthotropic branch matching the size of the rootstock, cut it off 3~4 cm below a node, cut the base of the scion into a wedge shape, insert it into the rootstock cut, taking care to align the cambium, and tie it tightly with tying tape. To improve the survival rate, the scion can be wrapped well with tying tape. After 20 days expose the bud point, and after 30~40 days remove all ties.
③ Management of grafted seedlings After successful grafting, the seedlings need to be cultivated in the nursery until they meet the standard for planting out before being released for planting. In addition to the same management as seed seedlings, attention must be paid to protecting new buds and promptly removing buds sprouting from the rootstock.
Before grafting, water the seedlings thoroughly; after grafting, water carefully and do not let water touch the graft union.


(2) Establishment of coffee plantations

1. Site selection, planning and land clearing
The quality of environmental conditions is closely related to coffee growth and development and should be determined according to coffee growth habits and environmental requirements. Try to avoid choosing lowlands where cold air easily accumulates and frost forms; coffee roots need air, so choose well-drained, loose soil; coffee needs an environment with still air, so in areas without primary forest, windbreak forests should be considered in planning. The size of the coffee plantation is mainly considered according to the severity of local wind damage, generally 10~15 mu is suitable.
When clearing land, pay attention to maintaining the original still-air environment of the forest land. Large trees needed for shade should be marked and preserved, and the remaining trees should first be cut down and then cleared.
Soil and water conservation in the plantation is a very important task. On gentle slopes below 10 degrees, contour cultivation can be used; on slopes above 10 degrees, contour terraces should be built.
Digging planting holes can be combined with terrace construction. Planting holes generally use the specification of 60 (length) × 60 (width) × 50 (depth) cm. When digging holes, topsoil and subsoil should be placed separately so that topsoil can be returned to the holes. Before planting, sufficient base fertilizer should be applied to the planting holes. Generally, decomposed cattle pen manure, pig pen manure or compost can be used, applying 30~50 jin per hole, mixed with half a jin of superphosphate. After applying base fertilizer, return topsoil and mix evenly. If close planting is used, horizontal trenches can be dug. Planting holes should be dug 2~3 months before planting to allow full weathering.
2. Planting density Planting density mainly depends on variety, pruning system, soil type, local rainfall, and management level, such as fertilization, irrigation, shade, etc.
For medium-seeded coffee using multi-stem training, the spacing is generally 2.5×3 m; for single-stem training, generally 2×2.5 m.
For small-seeded coffee using multi-stem training, the spacing is generally 2×3 m or 2.5×3 m; for single-stem training, generally 1.5×2 m or 2×2 m.
For large-seeded coffee, the plant is tall, and the spacing is generally 4×5 m.
Generally speaking, where the soil is fertile, annual rainfall is high, and management level is high, planting can be sparser.
In recent years, coffee has been intercropped with coconut, areca, rubber or other crops, and spacing can be determined according to intercropping requirements.
(3) Planting time and planting method Generally, planting is done when the rainy season comes each year. On Hainan Island, the best planting time is August~September; in places with spring rain, planting in February is also acceptable. Strong, healthy seedlings 10~11 months old that have grown 2~3 pairs of branches should be selected for planting. It is best to lift seedlings on a cloudy day or in the afternoon of a sunny day. Planting with soil or bare-root planting are both acceptable. For bare-root planting, water thoroughly the day before lifting the seedlings; after the seedlings are lifted, cut off 1/2 of the leaves.
Seedlings are best planted immediately after lifting. If they are to be transported far or cannot be planted immediately, coat the roots with mud slurry and place them in a cool place. For seedlings raised in plastic bags, cut open the plastic bag and place the seedling into the planting hole; do not let the soil in the bag crumble, so as to avoid damaging the roots. The planting depth should be the same as the seedling's original depth; lateral roots should be allowed to spread naturally, and the soil should be pressed firmly when backfilled. After planting, water immediately and mulch. In order to train a multi-stem tree shape, oblique planting or stem cutting can also be used at planting.

2. Shade
-- The purpose of shade is to create an environment suited to coffee growth and development, so as to ensure high and stable yields after planting through comprehensive agricultural technical measures. The level of shade should vary with different cultivation environments and different varieties. When planting coffee in tropical high-altitude areas and in valleys or basins with high mountains on the east and west sides or all around, shade can be small or unnecessary; when planting coffee on west-facing slopes with low humidity, frequent winds, a long dry season and strong light, shade should be appropriately greater. Medium-seeded coffee generally requires 30% shade; small-seeded coffee requires 25~30% shade; mature large-seeded trees generally do not need shade.
-- As shade tree species, they should have the characteristics of fast growth, evergreen habit, sparse branches and leaves, deep taproot, few lateral roots, and strong wind resistance. According to current production experience, Taiwan acacia is a relatively good shade tree, but its disadvantage is root disease. Salvador leucaena grows fast, but its canopy is not large.
-- The planting density of shade trees should be determined according to the size of their canopy. If Taiwan acacia is selected as the shade tree, one Taiwan acacia can be planted every 2~3 rows between coffee rows and every 4~5 plants within the row.
-- Shade trees are best planted in advance, and coffee trees should be planted only after the shade trees can provide shade. If this cannot be done, temporary shade crops should be planted between coffee rows, such as pigeon pea, tephrosia, leucaena, and indigofera, and cut down when the permanent shade trees take effect.
Temporary shade trees should be thinned year by year according to the different growth stages of coffee. For permanent shade trees, branches below 2 m should be pruned off so as not to affect normal coffee growth. When entering the fruiting stage, a relatively small amount of shade should be retained, about 25~30%, and excess shade trees should be cut down, leaving about 10~15 trees per mu.

3. Training and pruning
Reasonable training and pruning are the guarantee for obtaining rapid growth and high yield in coffee. Training is carried out before the coffee tree enters the fruiting stage, so that it forms a strong framework tree shape and lays the foundation for high yield; pruning, on the basis of training, regulates the relationship between growth and fruiting. The training methods for coffee trees mainly include single-stem training and multi-stem training.
(1) Single-stem training and pruning
Single-stem training is a training method that cultivates one trunk, uses primary branches as framework branches, and uses secondary and tertiary branches as the main fruiting branches. In single-stem training, in order to promote robust branch development, the measure of topping is usually adopted. According to the requirement for controlling trunk height, the terminal bud is removed to inhibit apical dominance and promote branch growth, so as to achieve the purpose of single-stem training.
Topping methods can be divided into one-time topping and multiple topping.
① One-time topping method When the coffee tree is 1.5~1.7 m tall, cut off the terminal bud. Some also top only when the tree is 1.8~2.2 m tall.
② Multiple topping method Mostly applied to small-seeded varieties, divided into two-time and three-time topping. Two-time topping: carry out the first topping when the tree is 1~1.2 m tall; after the first branches have developed fully (under good management about half a year is needed), select and retain one robust orthotropic branch as the continuing trunk; when it grows to 80~90 cm tall, carry out the second topping. After topping, no more orthotropic branches are retained, maintaining a tree height of about 1.7~1.8 m.
If three-time topping, the first topping height is 0.8~1 m, the second topping height is 1.2~1.5 m, and the third topping height is 1.6~2 m. After each topping, the retained continuing trunk should be in the opposite direction from the previously retained continuing trunk, so as to maintain canopy balance. (Figure 1)
The time and position of topping should be around May of the second or third year after planting. When topping, retain the 3~4 pairs of primary branches that grew from the beginning of the year to May, because the primary branches that grow at this time are mainly vegetative, develop well after topping, and produce secondary branches earlier, which is conducive to the formation of framework branches. With good management, a compact canopy can be formed in the same year.
If topping is done after June, most of the axillary buds of the retained primary branches have already formed flower buds, and few secondary branches are produced. Even if they are produced, they grow farther from the trunk and are weaker, affecting canopy formation and failing to achieve the purpose of topping.
Management of topped trees After topping, promptly remove orthotropic branches sprouting from the trunk (especially at the top), and prune the secondary and tertiary branches that are produced. The following types of branches should be cut off: branches growing within 15 cm of the first branch near the stem; branches growing upward, inward or downward with incorrect orientation; old, drooping and weak branches; branches with pests and diseases; and excessive branches growing on the same branch and the same node. How many secondary branches should be retained on each primary branch mainly depends on the level of agricultural management. Generally retain 7~8, staggered and evenly arranged. After secondary branches are produced, the primary branch has aged and cannot bear fruit, so the primary branch should be cut short at the point where the secondary branch grows at the tip.
(2) Multi-stem training Multi-stem training is a training method that uses primary branches as the main fruiting branches. The purpose of training is to cultivate multiple trunks and grow large numbers of robust primary branches. Multi-stem trees are not topped, and when yield declines after 3~5 years of fruiting, the old trunks are replaced with new ones.
① Methods of cultivating multiple stems
-- Oblique planting method: At planting, plant the seedling obliquely, generally at an angle of 30~60 degrees to the ground (preferably 45 degrees). Oblique planting can inhibit terminal growth of the trunk and promote sprouting of orthotropic branches at the base. Pay attention to selecting and retaining 3~4 robust orthotropic branches with a certain spacing to train as new trunks. After the new trunks grow, cut off the old trunk. (Figure 2)
-- Stem bending method: Plant upright at planting; when the seedling grows to about 1 m tall, bend the trunk over and fix it with rope or wooden hooks. Pay attention to selecting and retaining 3~4 robust orthotropic branches with a certain spacing and train them into new trunks. After the original trunk has fruited for 2~3 years, cut it off. (Figure 3). This method requires more labor than the oblique planting method and requires materials to fix the trunk.
-- 1. Bend and fix the trunk 2. Cut off the original trunk after 2~3 years of fruiting 3. New trunks that have been trained
-- Stem cutting method: This method is mainly suitable for seedlings more than 2 years old. Cut the stem about 25 cm above the ground, then plant in the field, and use the multiple orthotropic branches grown after stem cutting to train as new trunks.
No matter which method is used to cultivate multiple stems, after the new trunks have been retained, always pay attention to cutting off orthotropic branches sprouting from the new and old trunks, so as to avoid disrupting the tree shape and consuming nutrients.
② Replacing trunks of mature trees
For multi-stem-trained coffee trees, after 3~5 years of fruiting, because the trunk continues to grow, the fruiting position gradually rises, and the growth increment of old trunks decreases year by year, the trunks must be replaced in time. There are mainly two forms, namely one-time replacement and partial replacement.
One-time replacement After fruit harvest, saw off all trunks at once from a point 25~30 cm above the ground. The saw cut should be slightly slanted and smooth. When large numbers of orthotropic branches sprout below the saw cut, appropriately select and retain 3~4 robust orthotropic branches with a certain spacing as new trunks, and remove the rest. The advantages of this method are: cutting all stems at once is convenient to manage, the new trunks receive even light and grow robustly, and excessive shoot growth due to excessive shade will not occur.
Partial replacement That is, replace 1~2 trunks each year and train 1~2 new trunks. Before replacing the trunks, 1~2 orthotropic branches must be trained. At the time of stem cutting, saw off the trunk above where the orthotropic branch sprouted. Its disadvantage is that the growth of the new trunk is affected by the old trunk, and due to insufficient sunlight it becomes leggy and is easily bent or toppled in strong wind and rain.
(3) Rejuvenation of old trees
Rejuvenation of old trees uses one-time stem cutting, and one year after stem cutting there can be a small harvest. Carry out stem cutting after fruit harvest, at a point 30 cm above the ground, sawing the trunk from top to bottom at an angle of 30~45 degrees, and the saw cut should be smooth. After stem cutting, combine with deep plowing of the soil, prune part of the root system, and strengthen fertilization to promote growth. Promptly remove excess buds.
(4) Renovation of dead-top trees and weak trees The cause of dead-top trees is that after branches once bore a large amount of fruit, their own nutrients were excessively consumed and they died in large numbers, resulting in emptiness in the middle of the canopy. Young trees or mature trees after planting that, due to neglect of management, have weak and aged trunks and poor plant vigor and bear little fruit are called weak trees.
The renovation method can be based on the dead-top condition of the coffee tree, using middle stem cutting or trunk bending to train new trunks and re-form the canopy. However, water and fertilizer management must be strengthened for results to be obtained.
(5) Rejuvenation budding and variety replacement of coffee
After coffee seedling trees have fruited for many years, yield gradually declines. In order to increase coffee yield, the method of stem-cutting rejuvenation and budding for variety replacement can be used. The bud sticks used for budding are selected from high-yield medium-seeded clone multiplication nurseries or mother tree gardens. The coffee tree is cut back all at once after fruit harvest, leaving 3~4 orthotropic branches as rootstocks for budding and variety replacement. When the orthotropic branches grow to 50~60 cm and the base has not yet become suberized, carry out field budding. (The budding method is the same as above). This is a fast and good method for increasing the yield of low-yield coffee plantations.
5. Soil management and fertilization
(1) Weeding and mulching In young coffee plantations, weeds easily grow, especially in the rainy season, and weeding should be done once a month. If labor is sufficient, first weed around the trees thoroughly. In mature coffee plantations, weeding can be done once every 2~3 months. If herbicides are used, be careful not to spray them on coffee branches and leaves; use in young coffee plantations should be even more cautious.
Coffee roots are shallow, and are easily affected by adverse climatic conditions such as high temperature and drought. Therefore, mulching within the coffee plantation or within the root zone should be done well. According to experience from various places, mulching with grass in coffee plantations can increase yield by 60~80%; dead mulch can increase soil organic matter, promote soil microbial activity, and in hot, dry seasons can also lower soil temperature and increase soil water content. Mulching materials can be adapted to local conditions and obtained locally; citronella residue, rice straw, fallen leaves, weeds, etc. can all be used. The mulching thickness is preferably 10~15 cm, and the width depends on the material; if material is sufficient, it can be mulched up to between the rows.
(2) Deep plowing and soil improvement can improve soil physical and chemical properties. Especially for relatively poor soil, deep plowing and fertilization are even more important. Under general soil conditions, after deep plowing and soil improvement, lateral root growth is 3~4 times greater than without deep plowing, and aboveground growth is also greater. Deep plowing should be 40~50 cm deep, 60~80 cm long, and 40~50 cm wide, once a year. It is best to press 20~30 jin of green manure into the bottom layer of the deep plowing hole in two layers, and apply 4 liang of superphosphate on the green manure. In the upper layer of the hole, apply another 20~30 jin of compost or pig or cattle pen manure, and finally cover with soil.
(3) Irrigation Coffee-growing areas in our country all have distinct rainy and dry seasons. Irrigating in the dry season, especially when drought occurs during the flowering period, can ensure normal growth and flowering of coffee plants and increase the seed-setting rate, thereby achieving high yield.
(4) Fertilization Fertilization is one of the key measures for obtaining high yield in coffee cultivation. According to data, for every 1 jin of dry beans harvested, the coffee tree must absorb 35 g of nitrogen from the soil (equivalent to 6 liang of ammonium sulfate), 7 g of phosphorus (equivalent to 1.1 liang of superphosphate), and 38 g of potassium (equivalent to 2~3 liang of potassium chloride). According to research by the Spice and Beverage Research Institute: for every 5 kg of fresh fruit produced by medium-seeded coffee, 200~210 g of ammonium sulfate, 50 g of superphosphate, and 120~130 g of potassium sulfate are needed each year. From the amount of fertilizer needed, it is not much, but the coffee tree also grows large amounts of branches, leaves, stems and roots each year, all of which consume large amounts of nutrients. In addition, shade trees absorb nutrients, the soil fixes nutrients, and soil erosion also consumes part of the fertilizer. Therefore, fertilization of coffee is very important.
① Within 1~2 years after planting, fertilize in combination with training. Fertilization of young coffee trees is mainly nitrogen fertilizer, with appropriate application of phosphorus and potassium fertilizer, to accelerate canopy formation and promote root development. Human and livestock manure and urine and green leaf compost also have very good effects on the growth of young coffee trees.
Two months after coffee seedlings are planted, the first fertilization can be carried out, and thereafter fertilize once every 1~2 months. If applying human and livestock manure and urine, it should be composted until decomposed and diluted with water at a ratio of 1:3 before use, applying 10 jin per plant. Liquid manure is best applied in the dry season. Ammonium sulfate can be added to the compost and applied together; each picul of compost can be mixed with 3~5 liang of ammonium sulfate. Chemical fertilizers (nitrogen and potassium fertilizers) can also be applied in shallow furrows dug 15 cm outside the canopy spread after rain, applying 15~25 g per plant. For young coffee, fertilization should follow the principle of frequent application and light application.
② Fertilization of coffee trees during the fruiting period
Under relatively good management, coffee begins to fruit in the third year after planting. According to analysis, in addition to nitrogen, the development of coffee fruit also requires more potassium. Therefore, fertilization of mature fruiting coffee trees should mainly be nitrogen and potassium fertilizers, with appropriate combination of phosphorus fertilizer and other elements. The effect of applying potassium fertilizer during fruit development is very significant. According to measurements, for small-seeded coffee, applying potassium fertilizer in July~August has the best effect; for medium-seeded coffee, the dry matter increase of the fruit has 3 peak periods, namely July~September, October~December and January~February of the following year, so potassium fertilizer can be applied in 3 applications.
Fruiting trees are generally fertilized 5 times a year, respectively in February~March (flowering period), April~May (young fruit period), July~September (fruit-filling period), October~November and December~January of the following year. Annual application includes 15~20 kg of organic fertilizer or compost, 250~500 g of urea, 150~500 g of superphosphate, 150~250 g of superphosphate, and 150~200 g of potassium chloride.


V. Pest and Disease Control of Coffee

(1) Control of diseases
(2) Control of insect pests

(1) Insect pest control
1. Coffee tiger longhorn beetle It is distributed in coffee-producing regions around the world, and also occurs in Yunnan, Guangxi and Hainan Island in our country. It is one of the major pests of coffee. The larvae of the coffee tiger longhorn beetle damage coffee trunks more than 2 years old. At first they bore between the cambium and xylem, and then bore into the xylem. The damaged area forms a curved tunnel filled with wood shavings. It has a great impact on coffee: mild cases cause plant yellowing, dead branches and fruit drop, while severe cases cause the whole plant to die. The damaged parts, having lost mechanical support, are often broken in wind and rain. Sometimes they also bore into coffee roots, causing the plant to lose its regenerative capacity. In the early stage of damage, there is no obvious entrance hole on the outside, only slight swelling of the epidermis at the damaged area.
Control methods:
(1) Create an ecological environment suitable for coffee growth, strengthen management, and prune reasonably, which can play a certain control role. An appropriately shaded environment has less coffee tiger longhorn beetle damage than a full-light environment, and robust coffee trees have a certain insect resistance.
(2) Manually capture and kill adults and larvae, and promptly cut off and burn damaged branches and trunks.
(3) From February to June, before adults emerge from the holes, for all stems with a diameter of 1.5 cm or more, lindane or methyl parathion 1605 can be mixed with yellow mud, cow dung and water into a paste and applied to the suberized trunk, with very good results.
2. Coffee black twig borer Medium-seeded coffee in our country suffers relatively serious damage from this insect. It mostly damages one-year-old branches and tender trunks, causing dead branches and fallen leaves within a few weeks after damage. May~June is the peak damage period. According to surveys, the damage rate during the peak period can reach 60%.
From the outside of the damaged branch, the damage appears as a small hole, with a tunnel inside the hole. Sometimes more than ten bore holes can appear on the same branch. Eggs, larvae and adults can coexist simultaneously in the insect tunnel, with overlapping generations. The overwintering stage is mainly adults, and there is a dormant phenomenon during low temperatures.
Control methods:
(1) Combine with pruning to remove pest-damaged branches. From January to March, when adults are in the overwintering period, carry out whole-plantation clearing of dead branches, thoroughly removing all pest-damaged dead branches, especially those in certain positions, and burn them in a centralized manner. Cut off and burn on the same day. Tests have shown that this method can achieve 85% control.
(2) In early May, spray the whole plantation once with 1:500 sumithion or 1:400 malathion, which has a certain effect on suppressing the insect population.
(3) Frequently clear miscellaneous shrubs in the windbreak forest outside the plantation and cut them clean.
3. Coffee leopard moth It is widely distributed and is one of the common coffee pests. It also damages many cash crops. It can girdle and break off trunks 4~5 cm thick. The larvae overwinter in the branches and trunks, and often bore upward within the branches and trunks, forming tunnels of 30~60 cm. Control methods:
(1) Combine with coffee tree training and pruning, cut off damaged branches, and burn them in a centralized manner.
(2) Insert iron wire into the insect tunnel to pierce and kill the larvae.
(3) Inject 1:10 dichlorvos aqueous solution from the tunnel hole, then plug the hole with medicinal cotton, and seal the hole with mud slurry. This can poison and kill the larvae that damage the coffee trunk.
4. Scale insects
(1) Coffee green scale insect can damage both adult trees and seedlings; branches, leaves, trunks and fruits are all targets of damage. After leaves are damaged, they turn yellow, become deformed and wrinkled, and often induce heavy outbreaks of sooty mold, greatly affecting coffee photosynthesis and plant vigor. Control method: Spray with dimethoate or malathion 1:400~500 aqueous solution once a week for 3 consecutive times, with very good results. Lime sulfur mixture or resin mixture can also be sprayed. In the natural environment, green scale insects have many natural enemies, among which Beauveria bassiana and black scale fungus are the best; in the rainy season, the host rate of Beauveria bassiana reaches more than 90%.
(2) Coffee root mealybug mainly damages the roots, initially near the root collar, and later gradually spreads to all parts of the taproot and lateral roots, sucking their sap. This insect is spread by ants carrying it and coexists with fungi. In the later stage of damage, the fungus forms a string of gray-brown tumor-like lumps on the roots, wrapping the insects inside, causing the roots to blacken and rot and the plant to die. The target of damage is small-seeded varieties. Control method: In the early stage of damage, sprinkle dichlorobenzene powder around the root collar in soil about 10 cm deep, and after 7 days the mortality rate reaches 92%. In the later stage of damage, scrape away the surface soil around the roots to a depth of about 10 cm, sprinkle 30 g of para-dichlorobenzene, then cover with soil and press firmly; after 7 days the mortality rate can reach 100%.

(2) Disease control:
1. Coffee rust is the main disease of coffee and the most harmful; affected plants suffer reduced yield in mild cases and death in severe cases. This disease mainly damages small-seeded coffee and large-seeded coffee, while medium-seeded coffee has relatively strong resistance to rust.
Coffee rust mainly damages leaves, and sometimes also attacks young fruit and tender branches. After leaves are infected, many light yellow small spots first appear and expand in a water-soaked manner; orange-yellow powdery spore masses then appear on the underside of the leaves, with a light green halo around the spots. Later the spots gradually expand or join together to become irregular lesions, and finally the lesions dry up, turn dark brown, and the entire infected leaf falls off.
Coffee rust on Hainan Island occurs from October each year to April~May of the following year.
Control methods:
(1) Select and breed rust-resistant varieties for planting, such as Catimor and S.288 among small-seeded coffees. Strict quarantine work should be done during introduction to prevent the spread of pathogens.
(2) Strengthen tending and management to improve plant disease resistance.
(3) Eliminate the source of the pathogen. Seedlings in the nursery should be inspected frequently to remove diseased leaves; for plants in coffee plantations, combine with pruning to remove weak branches and diseased leaves. Especially before the end of the dry season, carry out a comprehensive inspection. Once diseased leaves are found, immediately organize manpower to remove all of them, and combine with chemical control.
(4) Chemical control. Spray with 1~5% Bordeaux mixture. The first spraying should be before the rainy season, depending on the specific conditions in each place and the severity of the disease. Generally spray once every 2~3 weeks. Triadimefon has a preventive effect on coffee rust and a therapeutic effect in the early stage of the disease. Use 35~65 g of 25% wettable powder or 150~300 g of 5% wettable powder per mu, diluted with 30 kg of water for spraying.
2. Coffee anthracnose occurs in almost all coffee-growing areas. It mainly damages coffee leaves. After initial infection, light brown lesions appear on both the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves, about 3 cm in diameter. The centers of these lesions are grayish white, later turning completely gray, with small black dots arranged in concentric circles. Infection also often starts from the leaf margin. The disease can spread to branches and fruits: causing branches to dry up; after fruits are infected, they develop black sunken lesions, and the pulp hardens and clings tightly to the bean.
Control methods:
(1) Strengthen tending and management (including reasonable fertilization and correct pruning), create a microclimate environment suitable for coffee growth, make coffee trees grow robustly, and improve disease resistance.
(2) Chemical control
① 1:3:100 Bordeaux mixture has relatively good control effect.
② Foreign sources recommend using 1% captafol, starting the first spray two weeks after flowering, then spraying once every 3 weeks, for a total of 8 sprays, which can achieve good control results.
3. Coffee leaf spot disease, also called brown spot disease. Coffee of all varieties can be infected by this disease. It is most severe in cloudy and humid weather. It mainly damages leaves; infected leaves show irregular large lesions, which are dark brown or black, without concentric rings, and fall off in severe cases. Seedlings and young trees are especially susceptible, often causing blight.
Control methods:
Once symptoms are found, immediately clean the plantation, collect and burn diseased leaves, and then spray 0.5% Bordeaux mixture to protect the plants.
4. Coffee brown root disease. This disease damages coffee roots and affects aboveground growth. Leaves gradually change from glossy oil-green to yellow-green and dull. When the disease is severe, plant vigor declines markedly, leaves gradually wilt, droop and turn brown, and finally the whole plant dies. In our country, this disease occurs more often on Hainan Island.
Control methods:
(1) Select robust, disease-free seedlings for planting and remove diseased plants.
(2) For lightly diseased plants, prune off diseased roots, apply concentrated copper acid mixture or tar to the wounds, then earth up to allow them to recover growth.
(3) Avoid using tree species susceptible to brown root disease, such as tung oil tree or Taiwan acacia, as shade trees.
5. Avoid thread blight disease. This disease mostly occurs in the rainy season, and medium-seeded coffee is more susceptible. When infected, the underside of the leaves is covered with a layer of gray-white spiderweb-like mycelial cords; later these cords turn black, are slightly brittle and somewhat shiny when dry, and become soft and easily peeled off when moist. The mycelial cords can spread to the branches. After leaves are damaged, they turn yellow, and finally turn black and fall off. Some fallen leaves are suspended on the branches by the mycelial cords.
Control methods:
Infected plants should be pruned in time, and the pruned branches and leaves should be collected and burned. Before winter, spray 1% Bordeaux mixture once every 14 days, generally 3~4 sprays are sufficient.


VI. Harvesting and Processing of Coffee

(1) Harvesting
(2) Processing

(1) Harvesting
Timely harvesting is an important link in ensuring high coffee yield and improving product quality. Harvest standards vary with variety: small-seeded coffee has a relatively concentrated harvest period, and the fruit can be harvested when it turns red; harvesting should be done as it ripens. If one waits until the fruit is completely red, the fruit easily falls off. Medium- and large-seeded coffee have a longer harvest period and can be harvested in batches when more fruits are red or purple, which can save labor.

(2) Processing
1. Dry processing Spread the harvested fresh fruit on a drying yard to dry (about 15~20 days) or dry it in an electric drying oven, then use a huller or electric mill to remove the fruit skin and seed coat, and then sieve out the fruit skin, seed coat and impurities, and it becomes commercial coffee beans. This method is relatively simple and convenient, but the coffee bean quality is poorer.
2. Wet processing This is a relatively advanced processing method. After processing, the bean quality is good. The processing procedure is as follows:
(1) Washing fruit Wash off soil or debris sticking to the outside of the fruit.
(2) Peeling Peel using a peeling machine or by workers. Using a manually driven peeling machine, 35~40 kg of fresh fruit can be processed per hour; a small electric peeling machine has high efficiency and can process 250~400 kg of fresh fruit per hour; a large electric peeling machine can process 3~4 tons of fresh fruit per hour.
(3) Separation of skins Well-equipped peeling machines all have skin separation equipment, that is, using power to separate the beans from the fruit skin. If separating by hand, each worker can only separate 52 jin, and efficiency is very low.
(4) Demucilaging Soak the peeled beans in a fermentation tank or water vat for fermentation. The fermentation time varies with coffee type and air temperature. Small-seeded coffee needs 24~36 hours, medium-seeded coffee needs 36~38 hours; when the temperature is high, fermentation time can be shorter. Change the water once every 12 hours. The length of fermentation time directly affects coffee bean quality. If the time is too short, demucilaging is incomplete, it is not easy to dry, and the bean color is poor; if the time is too long, the beans will have a sour taste. After demucilaging, the beans should be washed immediately, generally in a large washing tank. After washing, the beans can be sun-dried or oven-dried. Large processing plants generally use dryers or drying rooms for drying, with a drying time of 24~36 hours. The temperature of the drying room is 90~100.C for the first 3~6 hours, should be maintained at 80.C for the next 3~6 hours, and finally maintained at 60.C until completely dry. If sun-drying, 5~7 days are needed. After drying, carry out hulling to become commercial beans.
Points to note during processing:
(1) Ripe fruit and unripe fruit must not be mixed together. It is best to grade them before peeling; otherwise, the bean size will be uneven, affecting quality and reducing commercial value.
(2) Do not break the seed shell during peeling; otherwise, the kernel will turn black during fermentation, thereby reducing the quality of the product.